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Surrogacy is a modern medical procedure involving the carrying of the fetus and the delivery of an infant belonging to other individuals. In Shia jurisprudence, surrogacy has emerged as a novel subject, giving rise to various inquiries. Two common types are distinguished: "gestational surrogacy" (full) and "traditional surrogacy" (partial). In the former, the surrogate mother has no genetic link to the fetus, whereas in the latter, the surrogate's egg contributes to the formation of the fetus.

Regarding the jurisprudential legitimacy of this method, three general perspectives exist among jurists: absolute permissibility, absolute prohibition, and conditional permissibility. In instances where the act itself is deemed permissible, receiving compensation for the service is also allowed. Furthermore, the fertilization of sperm and eggs from individuals who are not spouses—a relevant issue in certain surrogacy scenarios—has elicited diverse rulings among jurists.

Regarding the lineage of a child born through this method, three primary views have been proposed. The first view attributes the child solely to the owners of the sperm and egg, negating any maternal relationship with the surrogate in cases of gestational surrogacy. The second view categorizes the surrogate as a foster mother (marḍaʿa). The third view posits that the woman who gives birth to the child is considered the mother.

A significant jurisprudential-legal discussion concerning surrogacy involves the nature of the contract concluded between the infertile couple and the carrier of the fetus. These contracts may be characterized as the hiring of objects, the hiring of persons, reward (juʿāla), deposit, loan (ʿāriya), or an innominate contract. Each of these contract types possesses specific conditions and rulings which are examined in both fiqh and law.

The utilization of surrogacy as a solution for infertile couples has raised significant ethical concerns. Consequently, the supervision of ethics committees is essential to maintain ethical standards throughout the process. Key concerns include the commercialization of reproduction, health risks to the surrogate mother, the consent of her husband and existing children, emotional reactions during delivery, the disclosure of genetic origins, as well as broader legal, cultural, and health-related issues. Shia researchers have authored independent monographs addressing the various dimensions of surrogacy.

Introduction and Status

Surrogacy, or the "replacement womb," refers to a practice wherein a woman undertakes the carrying and birth of a fetus belonging to other individuals.[1] This method enables women whose wombs are incapable of forming or carrying a fetus, or who for other reasons do not wish to carry a pregnancy, to have children.[2]

While the background of this subject traces back to 1990 in the USA, it has been addressed as a new issue (mustaḥdatha) in Shia fiqh.[3] According to Naser Makarem Shirazi, historically, certain entities were neither sold nor leased; however, in the contemporary era, such matters may be subject to sale or lease. For instance, individuals may now lease or sell bodily organs or wombs to secure financial benefits.[4]

Research evaluating independent jurisprudential sources on this topic indicates that they are relatively scarce.[5] In addition to jurisprudential discussions, topics regarding medical ethics have also been raised in this context.[6]

Gestational Surrogacy (Full)

One form of surrogacy, referred to as full replacement, occurs when the surrogate mother has no genetic connection to the fetus in her womb.[7] Several scenarios can be hypothesized for full replacement:

  • A woman hosts an embryo formed from the sperm and egg of a husband and wife. In this instance, the couple's gametes are fertilized in a laboratory environment and subsequently transferred to the host's womb.[8]
  • The intended mother possesses eggs but lacks a functional womb or the ability to carry a pregnancy, while the intended father lacks sperm. In this method, the woman's egg is combined with donor sperm in a laboratory, and the resulting embryo is transferred to the surrogate's womb.[9]
  • The intended father produces sperm, but the intended mother lacks eggs. Here, the man's sperm is used to fertilize a donor egg in a laboratory, which is then transferred to the surrogate womb.[10]
  • Neither the husband nor the wife possesses healthy gametes. Consequently, sperm and eggs from another couple are combined and placed in a surrogate womb. This scenario is also known as Embryo donation.[11]

Traditional Surrogacy (Partial)

In this category, the surrogate mother retains a genetic connection to the fetus she carries.[12] This hypothesis includes various potential modes:

  • The surrogate's egg is combined with the sperm of a man whose wife lacks viable eggs.[13]
  • The surrogate's egg is combined with donor sperm, such as that from a sperm bank.[14]
  • A portion of the surrogate woman's egg is utilized in fertilization. In a procedure known as mitochondrial transfer, if a woman possesses eggs that are incapable of accepting sperm or sustaining growth, her egg nucleus can be removed and transferred into a donor egg.[15] In this case, the egg hosting the nucleus will exert a genetic influence on the fetus. Because three individuals contribute genetically to the fetus, embryos formed in this manner are colloquially termed three-parent children.[16]

Is Surrogacy Permissible?

Jurists have offered three general perspectives regarding the permissibility or impermissibility of this practice:

  • Absolute Prohibition: Some scholars, such as Bahjat[25] and Mohammad Javad Fazel Lankarani,[26] consider the gestation of a fetus formed from the sperm and egg of other individuals to be impermissible under any circumstances.
  • Conditional Permissibility: Sobhani,[27] Noori Hamedani,[28] and Kharrazi[29] deem the act permissible provided that the surrogate mother is unmarried and the sperm owner enters into a temporary marriage (nikāḥ) with her for the duration of the pregnancy. Mazaheri conditions permissibility on necessity, adding that it is preferable for the surrogate to be single and married to the sperm owner.[30] Montazeri also held that the surrogate woman must be single.[31] Mohammad Fazel Lankarani considered it permissible only in cases of necessity and if a spousal relationship exists between the sperm owner and the surrogate.[32] Research examining the fiqh of surrogacy suggests that leasing a womb for fertilization is not permissible; however, if the sperm and egg are combined externally, the womb's capacity for gestation can be leased.[33]

Can the Surrogate Woman Receive Payment?

The permissibility of receiving payment for surrogacy is generally considered contingent upon the ruling of the act itself.[34] Jurists who find the practice unproblematic also consider it permissible to pay the surrogate for carrying the fetus.[35] According to Makarem Shirazi, the amount of payment the surrogate receives depends on the contract. If no specific contract exists and the service was not intended to be gratuitous, the customary rate (al-ujrat al-mithl) for such conditions must be paid.[36]

Can Insemination with Others' Gametes be Placed in a Surrogate?

In certain types of surrogacy, the sperm, egg, or both do not belong to the couple commissioning the surrogacy.[37] Regarding the ruling on this issue, scholars such as al-Khoei[38] and Fazel Lankarani[39] maintain that, generally, the fertilization of sperm and egg from individuals who are not spouses is impermissible. This group cites a narration from Imam al-Sadiq (a)[40] stating that the gravest punishment on the Day of Judgment is reserved for one who places his semen in a womb that is unlawful to him (i.e., not his wife). Based on this hadith, the fundamental combination of semen from a non-husband with a woman's egg is prohibited.[41] Opponents of the practice also rely on the absoluteness (iṭlāq) of certain verses and narrations, as well as the taste of the Shari'a (madhāq al-sharīʿa).[42]

In contrast, jurists such as Mohammad Momen[43] and Mohammad Yazdi[44] argue that these narrations only apply to cases where foreign semen combines with the egg inside the womb. If fertilization occurs outside the womb and the embryo is subsequently transferred, it presents no issue. On this basis, this type of surrogacy is deemed permissible.[45] Similarly, Ayatollah Khamenei considers such acts permissible, regardless of whether the combination with the stranger's sperm occurs externally or is facilitated within the womb via medical instruments.[46]

To Whom Does the Fetus Grown in a Surrogate Belong?

A critical question in surrogacy concerns the maternal relationship—or lack thereof—between the surrogate and the child. Three views have been proposed:

  • The child belongs solely to the owners of the sperm and egg.[47] If the owner of the sperm or egg is unknown, the child is considered to have an unknown father or mother.[48] If the surrogate mother has no genetic relationship with the child, she is not considered related to the fetus. However, precaution (iḥtiyāṭ) must be observed regarding matters such as mahramiyya and inheritance.[49] For this group, the criterion for lineage (nasab) is the formation of the fetus from biological components belonging to the father and mother.[50]
  • The child belongs to those who have a genetic relationship with the fetus, but the surrogate falls under the ruling of a foster mother. This implies the child is mahram to her and her children, although they do not inherit from one another.[51] The rationale for this view draws upon narrations indicating that a breastfeeding woman contributes to a child's growth and establishes mahramiyya.[52] Consequently, gestation in the womb is seen as having effects analogous to breastfeeding.[53]
  • Both the genetic mother and the surrogate mother are considered mothers of the child; therefore, in matters such as marriage, inheritance, and maintenance (nafaqa), the surrogate mother's status must be recognized.[54] This group cites Qur'an 58:2, which defines a person's mother as the one who gave birth to them.[55]

Type of Contract in Surrogacy

One of the jurisprudential-legal debates concerning surrogacy revolves around the nature of the contract between the infertile couple and the surrogate.[56] Several possibilities have been posited:

  • Hiring of Objects (Ijāra al-Ashyāʾ): In this contract, a lessor delivers an object to a lessee to utilize its benefits in exchange for rent.[57] In the context of surrogacy, this implies the surrogate places her womb at the disposal of another couple for use in exchange for payment.[58] Critics argue that delivering the physical object (ʿayn) is a condition in lease contracts, and since delivering the womb as leased property is impossible, such a contract is invalid.[59]
  • Hiring of Persons (Ijāra al-Ashkhāṣ): In this type of lease, an employee (ajīr) undertakes to perform a specific task for an employer in exchange for a specified wage.[60] Here, the surrogate mother undertakes the gestation and birth of the fetus for a fee.[61] A critique of this model is that if the fetus miscarries, the woman would not be entitled to payment since the task was not completed. Some researchers argue this is unjust, as the failure may not stem from negligence. Additionally, surrogacy involves obligations that cannot typically be stipulated in a standard lease contract.[62] Conversely, another view aligns this type of lease with surrogacy conditions,[63] arguing that just as a woman can lease the function of breastfeeding, she can lease the utility of her womb.[64]
  • Ju'ala: Establishing a specific compensation in exchange for a specific permissible act is termed ju'ala. For example, one might say, "If you sew my clothes, I will pay you this amount."[65] A surrogacy contract can be framed as juʿāla, wherein the party desiring the embryo's development sets a wage, and the surrogate accepts the undertaking.[66] The primary objection is that juʿāla is a revocable contract (jāʾiz), allowing parties to terminate it at will, whereas surrogacy requires binding commitment.[67]
  • Wadi'a: This is a bilateral contract where one party entrusts another with safeguarding their property.[68] It is argued that surrogacy cannot be considered Wadi'a because the surrogate undertakes the active growth and development of the fetus, rather than mere safekeeping.[69]
  • Ariya: This contract involves one party allowing another to utilize their property gratuitously.[70] While one might conceptualize that the surrogate loans (ʿāriya) the benefits of her womb,[71] the requirement to deliver the object being loaned prevents this contract from fully corresponding to surrogacy.[72]
  • Innominate Contract (Unspecified): This view suggests that fitting surrogacy into a pre-designated contract type is unnecessary. Based on the principle of freedom of contract and general legal standards, the parties may establish a specific agreement.[73]

Surrogacy in Medical Ethics

While surrogacy offers a solution for infertile couples, it raises significant concerns regarding Ethics.[74] Medical ethics researchers advocate for independent ethics committees to supervise the process alongside medical staff to ensure ethical standards are upheld.[75] Scholarly literature on the ethics of surrogacy highlights concerns such as the potential commercialization of the practice, health risks to the surrogate, the necessity of consent from her husband and children, emotional reactions during birth, and the disclosure of truth. Additionally, broader legal, cultural, and health-related challenges have been identified.[76]

Maintaining Human Dignity and Honor

The commodification of surrogacy poses a concern for human dignity. Viewing human beings as tools to achieve financial ends is incompatible with Human dignity. This is particularly concerning if couples capable of childbearing resort to surrogacy due to a sense of superiority or to avoid the physical rigors of pregnancy and labor.[77] Therefore, it is argued that surrogacy is ethical only when motivated by altruism and utilized in cases where no other method of childbearing is viable. While commercialization is discouraged, providing for the surrogate's expenses and offering a gift in appreciation of her effort is ethically commendable.[78]

Preventing Harms

Another critical ethical issue is the necessity of mitigating potential harm to the child or the surrogate mother. To this end, a comprehensive assessment of the woman's physical health must precede the procedure. Attention must also be paid to proper nutrition, medical needs, and care during the gestational period. Furthermore, the surrogate's mental health and psychological readiness are essential prerequisites for this act.[79]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ḥusaynī Ḥujjatābādī, Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī, 1396 Sh, p. 11; Ākhūndī & Rāsikh, "Muqaddima," in Raḥim-i jāyguzīn, 1387 Sh, p. 9.
  2. ↑ Ḥusaynī Ḥujjatābādī, Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī, 1396 Sh, pp. 11-12; Ākhūndī & Rāsikh, "Muqaddima," in Raḥim-i jāyguzīn, 1387 Sh, p. 9.
  3. ↑ Yaḥyāzāda Ardistānī, Qarārdād-i raḥim-i ijāraʾī wa ihdā-yi gāmit, 1398 Sh, pp. 1-2.
  4. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif-i fiqh-i muqāran, 1385 Sh, vol. 2, p. 82.
  5. ↑ Qāhirī, Aḥkām wa āthār-i ijāra-yi raḥim dar fiqh-i farīqayn, 1402 Sh, p. 10.
  6. ↑ Jahānī Shūrāb & Laṭīf-nižād Rūdsarī, "Murūrī bar janbih-hā-yi ḥuqūqī, qānūnī, akhlāqī wa fiqhī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 39.
  7. ↑ Ramaḍānī, "Taḥlīl-i fiqhī wa ḥuqūqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn az manẓar-i zan-i ṣāḥib-i raḥim", p. 54.
  8. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 104; Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40.
  9. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 94.
  10. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 99; Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40.
  11. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 97; Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40; Khalqī, "Ihdā-yi janīn dar partaw-i fiqh wa ḥuqūq", p. 60.
  12. ↑ Ramaḍānī, "Taḥlīl-i fiqhī wa ḥuqūqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn az manẓar-i zan-i ṣāḥib-i raḥim", p. 54.
  13. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 99; Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40.
  14. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 97; Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40.
  15. ↑ Riḍwān-ṭalab et al., "Barrasī-yi mashrūʿiyyat-i ravish-i darmānī-yi intiqāl-i mītūkandrī", pp. 708-709.
  16. ↑ Riḍwān-ṭalab & Malikī, "Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi kūdakān-i sih vālidī bar asās-i naẓarāt-i Imām Khumaynī (ra)", p. 92.
  17. ↑ Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  18. ↑ Sīstānī, "Questions and Answers on IVF", Official Website of Ayatollah Sistani; Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  19. ↑ Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  20. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, "Ruling on surrogacy for mahrams", Office of Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi; Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  21. ↑ Rūḥānī, Istiftāʾāt, 1383 Sh, vol. 1, p. 333.
  22. ↑ Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  23. ↑ Jannātī, Taṭawwur-i ijtihād dar ḥawza-yi istinbāṭ, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, p. 35.
  24. ↑ Muʾmin Qummī, Kalimāt sadīda fī masāʾil jadīda, 1415 AH, p. 93.
  25. ↑ Bahjat, "What is the ruling on pregnancy methods through injection?", Center for the Publication of Ayatollah Bahjat's works; Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  26. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi talqīḥ-i maṣnūʿī, 1389 Sh, pp. 138-139; Fāḍil Lankarānī, Makāsib-i muḥarrama, 1396 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 286-287.
  27. ↑ Subḥānī Tabrīzī, Istiftāʾāt, 1389 Sh, vol. 2, p. 417.
  28. ↑ Nūrī Hamadānī, Hazār wa yak masʾala-yi fiqhī, 1388 Sh, vol. 2, p. 264.
  29. ↑ Kharrāzī, al-Buḥūth al-hāmma fī l-makāsib al-muḥarrama, 1423 AH, vol. 3, pp. 170-180.
  30. ↑ Maẓāhirī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1389 Sh, p. 318.
  31. ↑ Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  32. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, 1425 AH, pp. 560-561.
  33. ↑ Muhājirī, "Ijāra-yi raḥim", p. 76.
  34. ↑ A group of researchers, Mawsūʿat al-fiqh al-islāmī, 1423 AH, vol. 4, p. 331.
  35. ↑ Ākhūndī & Bahjatī Ardikānī, "Raḥim-i jāyguzīn wa ḍarūrat-i istifāda az ān dar darmān-i nābāruvarī", p. 11.
  36. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Istiftāʾāt-i jadīd, 1427 AH, vol. 2, p. 609.
  37. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī & Jalīlī, "Ḥuqūq-i mālī wa ghayr-i mālī-yi kūdakān-i mutawallid az ravish-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40.
  38. ↑ Khūʾī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1422 AH, p. 561.
  39. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, 1425 Sh, p. 564.
  40. ↑ Barqī, al-Maḥāsin, 1371 AH, vol. 1, p. 106.
  41. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", pp. 90-91.
  42. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", p. 91.
  43. ↑ Muʾmin, "Sukhunī dar bāra-yi talqīḥ", pp. 65-66.
  44. ↑ Yazdī, "Bāruvārī-hā-yi maṣnūʿī wa ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi ān", pp. 104-105.
  45. ↑ Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", pp. 91-92.
  46. ↑ Ḥusaynī Khāminaʾī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, 1395 Sh, p. 34 and pp. 36-37; Karīmī & Mahtarī, "Ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi raḥim-i ijāraʾī", pp. 92-93; Ḥusaynī & Muḥammadī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī wa bīmārān, 1394 Sh, p. 153.
  47. ↑ Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1392 Sh, vol. 2, p. 665; Ḥusaynī Khāminaʾī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, 1395 Sh, pp. 36-37; Ḥusaynī & Muḥammadī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī wa bīmārān, 1394 Sh, p. 153; Maẓāhirī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1389 Sh, p. 318.
  48. ↑ Yazdī, "Bāruvārī-hā-yi maṣnūʿī wa ḥukm-i fiqhī-yi ān", p. 105.
  49. ↑ Subḥānī Tabrīzī, Istiftāʾāt, 1389 Sh, vol. 2, p. 416.
  50. ↑ A group of researchers, Masāʾil-i mustaḥdatha-yi pizishkī, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, p. 110.
  51. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Fatāwā al-jadīda, 1385 Sh, vol. 1, p. 427.
  52. ↑ A group of researchers, Masāʾil-i mustaḥdatha-yi pizishkī, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 111-112.
  53. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Fatāwā al-jadīda, 1385 Sh, vol. 1, p. 427.
  54. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, 1425 AH, p. 561; Rūḥānī, Istiftāʾāt, 1383 Sh, vol. 7, p. 372.
  55. ↑ A group of researchers, Masāʾil-i mustaḥdatha-yi pizishkī, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 112-113.
  56. ↑ Khwājazāda, "Māhiyyat-i ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar fiqh wa qānūn-i Īrān", p. 122.
  57. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardibīlī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, 1392 Sh, p. 41; Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, 1382 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 234-235.
  58. ↑ Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 105.
  59. ↑ Ṣāliḥī, "Māhiyyat-i ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-hā-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 38; Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", pp. 105-106.
  60. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardibīlī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, 1392 Sh, p. 41; Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, 1382 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 234-235.
  61. ↑ Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 106.
  62. ↑ Ṣāliḥī, "Māhiyyat-i ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-hā-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn", pp. 38-39; Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", pp. 110-111.
  63. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Fatāwā al-jadīda, 1385 Sh, vol. 2, p. 471; Ḥamd Allāhī & Rawshan, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi fiqhī-ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-i istifāda az raḥim-i jāyguzīn, 1388 Sh, p. 146.
  64. ↑ A group of researchers, Mawsūʿat al-fiqh al-islāmī, 1423 AH, vol. 4, p. 331; Baṭḥāʾī Gulpāygānī, Taḥqīqī pīrāmūn-i tawallud-i bidūn-i munākaḥat, 1382 Sh, p. 384.
  65. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardibīlī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, 1392 Sh, p. 195.
  66. ↑ Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 112.
  67. ↑ Ṣāliḥī, "Māhiyyat-i ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-hā-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 40; Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 113.
  68. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardibīlī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, 1392 Sh, p. 590.
  69. ↑ Nāʾib-zāda, Barrasī-yi ḥuqūq-i ravish-hā-yi nawīn-i bāruvarī-yi maṣnūʿī, 1380 Sh, p. 156.
  70. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardibīlī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, 1392 Sh, p. 385.
  71. ↑ Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 115.
  72. ↑ Nāʾib-zāda, Barrasī-yi ḥuqūq-i ravish-hā-yi nawīn-i bāruvarī-yi maṣnūʿī, 1380 Sh, p. 157.
  73. ↑ Ṣāliḥī, "Māhiyyat-i ḥuqūqī-yi qarārdād-hā-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn", pp. 41-42; Maẓāhirī & Pūr-Rasūl, "Tabyīn-i māhiyyat-i qarārdād-i raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 116.
  74. ↑ Nūrī-zāda, "Chālish-hā-yi akhlāqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 169.
  75. ↑ Nūrī-zāda, "Chālish-hā-yi akhlāqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 171.
  76. ↑ Jahānī Shūrāb & Laṭīf-nižād Rūdsarī, "Murūrī bar janbih-hā-yi ḥuqūqī, qānūnī, akhlāqī wa fiqhī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 39.
  77. ↑ Asgharī, "Mulāḥiẓāt-i akhlāqī dar ravish-i kumak-bāruvarī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn", p. 31.
  78. ↑ Nūrī-zāda, "Chālish-hā-yi akhlāqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 172.
  79. ↑ Nūrī-zāda, "Chālish-hā-yi akhlāqī-yi raḥim-i jāyguzīn dar Īrān", p. 33.

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