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==Marja'iyya== | ==Marja'iyya== | ||
Marja'iyya is the most important social and religious position in the Shiite community. Marja' is a mujtahid who is followed by a number of the Shi'as, that is, some Shi'as practice their religious acts in accordance with that mujtahid's jurisprudential views (that is, [[fatwas]]) and pay their judicial alms (al-wujuhat) to him or his representatives. To follow a religious scholar in this way is called "[[taqlid]]". | Marja'iyya is the most important social and religious position in the Shiite community. Marja' is a mujtahid who is followed by a number of the Shi'as, that is, some Shi'as practice their religious acts in accordance with that mujtahid's jurisprudential views (that is, [[fatwas]]) and pay their judicial alms (al-wujuhat) to him or his representatives. To follow a religious scholar in this way is called "[[taqlid]]".<ref>See: Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, ''Al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā'', vol. 1, p. 4; Raḥmān Sitāyish, ''Taqlīd'', p. 789.</ref> | ||
The extent of the social influence of a Marja' depends on the number of his followers. The financial power of a Marja' is reinforced by the judicial alms paid by his followers. Shiite authorities can spend these financial resources in religious propagation, administration of [[Al-Hawza al-'Ilmiyya|Islamic Seminaries]], helping people in need, and public services. | The extent of the social influence of a Marja' depends on the number of his followers. The financial power of a Marja' is reinforced by the judicial alms paid by his followers. Shiite authorities can spend these financial resources in religious propagation, administration of [[Al-Hawza al-'Ilmiyya|Islamic Seminaries]], helping people in need, and public services. | ||
===Conditions of Marja'iyya=== | ===Conditions of Marja'iyya=== | ||
A [[mujtahid]] can qualify as a marja' if it is permissible to follow his fatwas, that is, to act upon his jurisprudential views. To qualify for this, the mujtahid should meet some requirements the most important of which is that he should be superior to other qualified mujtahids with regard to his scholarship in [[fiqh]]. Other conditions include justice, being a man, maturity, and sanity. | A [[mujtahid]] can qualify as a marja' if it is permissible to follow his fatwas, that is, to act upon his jurisprudential views. To qualify for this, the mujtahid should meet some requirements the most important of which is that he should be superior to other qualified mujtahids with regard to his scholarship in [[fiqh]]. Other conditions include justice, being a man, maturity, and sanity.<ref>Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, ''Al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā'', vol. 1, p. 26-27.</ref> | ||
===Procedures of Selection=== | ===Procedures of Selection=== | ||
A Marja' is not selected by appointment. A person becomes a Shiite authority when the Shi'as accept him as an authority. In essays of fatwas (al-rasa'il al-'amaliyya), some ways are introduced for finding out about a person who is qualified for Marja'iyya: personal knowledge, judicial evidence (that two qualified persons testify that someone is [[A'lam]]—superior in scholarship), being well-known as A'lam, or being introduced by a group of scholars such that their views lead to personal knowledge. | A Marja' is not selected by appointment. A person becomes a Shiite authority when the Shi'as accept him as an authority. In essays of fatwas (al-rasa'il al-'amaliyya), some ways are introduced for finding out about a person who is qualified for Marja'iyya: personal knowledge, judicial evidence (that two qualified persons testify that someone is [[A'lam]]—superior in scholarship), being well-known as A'lam<ref>Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, ''Al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā'', vol. 1, p. 24-25.</ref>, or being introduced by a group of scholars such that their views lead to personal knowledge.<ref>Khomeini, ''Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil'', p. 12.</ref> | ||
===Tasks=== | ===Tasks=== | ||
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==The Influence of Marja'iyya== | ==The Influence of Marja'iyya== | ||
[[Shiite]] authorities usually have a strong influence on their followers and even all the Shi'as, and thus, they can establish their social and political views. For example, after the [[fatwa]] of [[Sayyid Muhammad Mujahid]], a great number of the Shi'as went to war against the Russians; the fatwa of the tobacco ban by [[Mirza Shirazi]] led to the abolishment of the tobacco monopoly in Iran; and [[June 5, 1963 Demonstrations]] in Iran to protest the arrest of [[Ayatollah Khomeini]]. | [[Shiite]] authorities usually have a strong influence on their followers and even all the Shi'as, and thus, they can establish their social and political views.<ref>See: Naqībzāda wa Amānī, ''Naqsh-i Rūḥānīyyat-i Shīʿa dar pīrūzī-yi inqilāb-i Islāmī'', p. 81-82.</ref> For example, after the [[fatwa]] of [[Sayyid Muhammad Mujahid]], a great number of the Shi'as went to war against the Russians<ref>Naqībzāda wa Amānī, ''Naqsh-i Rūḥānīyyat-i Shīʿa dar pīrūzī-yi inqilāb-i Islāmī'', p. 99-100.</ref>; the fatwa of the tobacco ban by [[Mirza Shirazi]] led to the abolishment of the tobacco monopoly in Iran<ref>Naqībzāda wa Amānī, ''Naqsh-i Rūḥānīyyat-i Shīʿa dar pīrūzī-yi inqilāb-i Islāmī'', p. 102.</ref>; and [[June 5, 1963 Demonstrations]] in Iran to protest the arrest of [[Ayatollah Khomeini]].<ref>Naqībzāda wa Amānī, ''Naqsh-i Rūḥānīyyat-i Shīʿa dar pīrūzī-yi inqilāb-i Islāmī'', p. 103.</ref> | ||
According to the Sunni scholar, [[Muhammad Rashid Rida]], no Sunni scholar has had the influence of Shiite mujtahids—especially those educated in the Islamic seminary of Najaf—neither alone nor collectively. He mentions as examples the boycott of elections in Iraq in the period of the [[King Faisal]] and the tobacco ban by Mirza Shirazi. Samuel Benjamin, a US envoy to Iran, said that the most important mujtahid in Tehran commutes with a mule and only has one servant, but he can topple down the king with one word. | According to the Sunni scholar, [[Muhammad Rashid Rida]], no Sunni scholar has had the influence of Shiite mujtahids—especially those educated in the Islamic seminary of Najaf—neither alone nor collectively. He mentions as examples the boycott of elections in Iraq in the period of the [[King Faisal]] and the tobacco ban by Mirza Shirazi.<ref>Rashīd al-Riḍā, ''Al-Khilāfa aw al-Imāma al-ʿuẓmā'', p. 90.</ref> Samuel Benjamin, a US envoy to Iran, said that the most important mujtahid in Tehran commutes with a mule and only has one servant, but he can topple down the king with one word.<ref>Ābrāhāmīyān, ''Tārīkh-i Īrān-i mudirn'', p. 41.</ref> | ||
==Historical Periods of Marja'yya== | ==Historical Periods of Marja'yya== | ||
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===Before the 13th/19th Century=== | ===Before the 13th/19th Century=== | ||
Rasul Ja'fariyan takes the recent period of Marja'iyya to begin with [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] who had an authority in scholarship, rather than the administration of the Shiite affairs, that is, it was not the case that the majority of the Shi'as followed him. Before this period, the Shi'as usually acted upon the fatwas of some local scholars, and thus, there was no Marja' followed by the majority of the Shi'as in the world. | Rasul Ja'fariyan takes the recent period of Marja'iyya to begin with [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] who had an authority in scholarship, rather than the administration of the Shiite affairs, that is, it was not the case that the majority of the Shi'as followed him.<ref>Jaʿfarīyān, ''Tashayyuʿ dar ʿArāq marjaʿīyya wa Īrān'', p. 58.</ref> Before this period, the Shi'as usually acted upon the fatwas of some local scholars, and thus, there was no Marja' followed by the majority of the Shi'as in the world. | ||
===The Beginning of Marja'iyya with Sahib al-Jawahir=== | ===The Beginning of Marja'iyya with Sahib al-Jawahir=== | ||
According to some researchers, the period of a global, influential Marja'iyya for the Shi'as began in the [[Islamic Seminary of Najaf]] with [[Muhammad Hasan al-Najafi]], known as "Sahib al-Jawahir" (d. 1266/1849). He did not require [[ijtihad]] for judges, and thus, he permitted that a judge adjudicates on the basis of the fatwas of a [[mujtahid]]. Many of his students went back to Iran and served as propagators of his Marja'iyya and fatwas. | According to some researchers, the period of a global, influential Marja'iyya for the Shi'as began in the [[Islamic Seminary of Najaf]] with [[Muhammad Hasan al-Najafi]], known as "Sahib al-Jawahir" (d. 1266/1849).<ref>Ḥāʾirī, ''Tashayyuʿ wa mashrūṭīyyat dar Īrān'', p. 82.</ref> He did not require [[ijtihad]] for judges, and thus, he permitted that a judge adjudicates on the basis of the fatwas of a [[mujtahid]].<ref>Jaʿfarīyān, ''Tashayyuʿ dar ʿArāq marjaʿīyya wa Īrān'', p. 59.</ref> Many of his students went back to Iran and served as propagators of his Marja'iyya and fatwas. | ||
After Sahib al-Jawahir, the Shiite Marja'iyya was still based in Iraq and the Islamic Seminary of Najaf. The most influential authorities in this period include [[Shaykh Murtada Ansari]] (d. 1281/1864) and [[Muhammad Hasan Shirazi]] (d. 1312/1896) who issued the fatwa of the tobacco ban. | After Sahib al-Jawahir, the Shiite Marja'iyya was still based in Iraq and the Islamic Seminary of Najaf. The most influential authorities in this period include [[Shaykh Murtada Ansari]] (d. 1281/1864) and [[Muhammad Hasan Shirazi]] (d. 1312/1896) who issued the fatwa of the tobacco ban.<ref>Ḥāʾirī, ''Tashayyuʿ wa mashrūṭīyyat dar Īrān'', p. 82-83.</ref> | ||
The Persian Constitutional Movement led to obvious interventions of Shiite authorities in political affairs. [[Akhund Khurasani]] and [[Sayyid Muhammad Kazim Yazdi]], the author of ''[[al-'Urwat al-wuthqa]]'', were crucial figures in the movement both of whom were Najaf-based Iranians. However, they had opposing views about the Constitutional Movement. Khurasani issued the Constitutional fatwa, and Yazdi opposed it. | The Persian Constitutional Movement led to obvious interventions of Shiite authorities in political affairs. [[Akhund Khurasani]] and [[Sayyid Muhammad Kazim Yazdi]], the author of ''[[al-'Urwat al-wuthqa]]'', were crucial figures in the movement both of whom were Najaf-based Iranians. However, they had opposing views about the Constitutional Movement. Khurasani issued the Constitutional fatwa, and Yazdi opposed it. | ||
In 1337/1918 when [['Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi]] moved to [[Qom]], a new period of the [[Islamic Seminary of Qom]] began. Sayyid al-Yazdi died in the same year. When the Islamic Seminary of Qom was taking shape and Sayyid al-Yazdi and [[Shaykh al-Shari'a Isfahani]] (d. 1339/1920) died, part of the Shiite authority moved to Iran along with al-Ha'iri himself. [[Sayyid Husayn Burujirdi]]'s migration to Qom in 1363/1943 and his activities led to the burgeoning of the Islamic Seminary of Qom. After the death of [[Sayyid Abu l-Hasan al-Isfahani]] (d. 1946) who lived in Najaf, Burujirdi was the prominent Shiite authority until 1961. | In 1337/1918 when [['Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi]] moved to [[Qom]], a new period of the [[Islamic Seminary of Qom]] began. Sayyid al-Yazdi died in the same year. When the Islamic Seminary of Qom was taking shape and Sayyid al-Yazdi and [[Shaykh al-Shari'a Isfahani]] (d. 1339/1920) died, part of the Shiite authority moved to Iran along with al-Ha'iri himself. [[Sayyid Husayn Burujirdi]]'s migration to Qom in 1363/1943 and his activities led to the burgeoning of the Islamic Seminary of Qom. After the death of [[Sayyid Abu l-Hasan al-Isfahani]] (d. 1946) who lived in Najaf, Burujirdi was the prominent Shiite authority until 1961.<ref>Jaʿfarīyān, ''Tashayyuʿ dar ʿArāq marjaʿīyya wa Īrān'', p. 79.</ref> | ||
After the death of Ayatollah Burujirdi, Marja'iyya was not concentrated in a single person. There were a number of Shiite authorities in Iran and Iraq in this period. Although in the early years of this period, [[Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim]] (d. 1390/1970) in Najaf was more outstanding than others, late in this period of 33 years, [[Sayyid Ruh Allah Khomeini]] (d. 1409/1989), the founder of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], turned into the most widely accepted Shiite authority in Iran and [[Sayyid Abu l-Qasim Khu'i]] turned into the most influential Najaf-based Shiite authority. | After the death of Ayatollah Burujirdi, Marja'iyya was not concentrated in a single person. There were a number of Shiite authorities in Iran and Iraq in this period.<ref>Qurbānī, ''Tārikh-i taqlīd dar Shīʿa'', p. 373.</ref> Although in the early years of this period, [[Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim]] (d. 1390/1970) in Najaf was more outstanding than others<ref>Jaʿfarīyān, ''Tashayyuʿ dar ʿArāq marjaʿīyya wa Īrān'', p. 81.</ref>, late in this period of 33 years, [[Sayyid Ruh Allah Khomeini]] (d. 1409/1989), the founder of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], turned into the most widely accepted Shiite authority in Iran and [[Sayyid Abu l-Qasim Khu'i]] turned into the most influential Najaf-based Shiite authority. | ||
After the death of Sayyid Abu l-Qasim Khu'i in 1413/1992, the global Shiite authority was concentrated in Qom for three years. This was because of the death of Shiite authorities in Najaf, the deportation of many Iranian scholars from the Islamic Seminary of Najaf, and the restrictions imposed by the ruling [[Ba'ath Party]] in Iraq. The compulsory migration of Najaf-based Iranian scholars led to the thriving of the Islamic Seminary of Qom and the weakness of the Islamic Seminary of Najaf. In this rather short period, [[Sayyid Muhammad Rida Gulpayigani]] and [[Muhammad 'Ali Araki]] were the most prominent Shiite authorities. | After the death of Sayyid Abu l-Qasim Khu'i in 1413/1992, the global Shiite authority was concentrated in Qom for three years. This was because of the death of Shiite authorities in Najaf, the deportation of many Iranian scholars from the Islamic Seminary of Najaf, and the restrictions imposed by the ruling [[Ba'ath Party]] in Iraq. The compulsory migration of Najaf-based Iranian scholars led to the thriving of the Islamic Seminary of Qom and the weakness of the Islamic Seminary of Najaf. In this rather short period, [[Sayyid Muhammad Rida Gulpayigani]] and [[Muhammad 'Ali Araki]] were the most prominent Shiite authorities. | ||
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==Marja'iyya In Iran== | ==Marja'iyya In Iran== | ||
In the recent period, the Islamic Seminary of Qom was established after the migration of [['Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi]] in 1340/1921. When he migrated to Qom, part of the Shiite authority moved to Iran. He was alive until 1937. After him, three prominent teachers of the Islamic Seminary of Qom administered the seminary: [[Sayyid Sadr al-Din Sadr]], [[Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Khwansari]], and [[Sayyid Muhammad Hujjat]]. None of them had a global authority, however. In this period, the Shiite authority was mainly concentered in the Islamic Seminary of Najaf, and in particular, [[Sayyid Abu l-Hasan Isfahani]] (d. 1365/1946). | In the recent period, the Islamic Seminary of Qom was established after the migration of [['Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi]] in 1340/1921. When he migrated to Qom, part of the Shiite authority moved to Iran. He was alive until 1937. After him, three prominent teachers of the Islamic Seminary of Qom administered the seminary: [[Sayyid Sadr al-Din Sadr]], [[Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Khwansari]], and [[Sayyid Muhammad Hujjat]]. None of them had a global authority, however. In this period, the Shiite authority was mainly concentered in the Islamic Seminary of Najaf, and in particular, [[Sayyid Abu l-Hasan Isfahani]] (d. 1365/1946).<ref>Ḥāʾirī, ''Tashayyuʿ wa mashrūṭīyyat dar Īrān'', p. 84.</ref> | ||
In 1364/1945 at the request of a group of scholars in the Islamic Seminary of Qom, Sayyid Husayn Tabataba'i Burujirdi, a student of [[Akhund Khurasani]], migrated to Qom. After Isfahani, he had a global, wide-ranging Marja'iyya. It can be said that late in his life, there was no other influential authority in Iraq or Iran. | In 1364/1945 at the request of a group of scholars in the Islamic Seminary of Qom, Sayyid Husayn Tabataba'i Burujirdi, a student of [[Akhund Khurasani]], migrated to Qom. After Isfahani, he had a global, wide-ranging Marja'iyya. It can be said that late in his life, there was no other influential authority in Iraq or Iran.<ref>Qurbānī, ''Tārikh-i taqlīd dar Shīʿa'', p. 373. </ref> | ||
Burujirdi's presence in Qom led to the thriving of the Islamic Seminary of Qom. After his death, a number of mujtahids were introduced as Shiite authorities. Other than [[Sayyid Muhammad Hadi Milani|Ayatollah Milani]] in [[Mashhad]], Iran-based authorities resided in Qom. Here are the most important figures: [[Sayyid Ahmad Khwansari]] (d. 1985), [[Sayyid Kazim Shari'atmadari]] (d. 1986), [[Sayyid Ruh Allah Khumayni]] (d. 1989), [[Sayyid Shahab al-Din Mar'ashi Najafi]] (d. 1990), and [[Sayyid Muhammad Rida Gulpayigani]] (d. 1993). Two days after the death of Ayatollah Burujirdi, Kayhan newspaper published a list of some Shiite mujtahids who were possible candidates for Marja'iyya. | Burujirdi's presence in Qom led to the thriving of the Islamic Seminary of Qom. After his death, a number of mujtahids were introduced as Shiite authorities. Other than [[Sayyid Muhammad Hadi Milani|Ayatollah Milani]] in [[Mashhad]], Iran-based authorities resided in Qom. Here are the most important figures: [[Sayyid Ahmad Khwansari]] (d. 1985), [[Sayyid Kazim Shari'atmadari]] (d. 1986), [[Sayyid Ruh Allah Khumayni]] (d. 1989), [[Sayyid Shahab al-Din Mar'ashi Najafi]] (d. 1990), and [[Sayyid Muhammad Rida Gulpayigani]] (d. 1993). Two days after the death of Ayatollah Burujirdi, Kayhan newspaper published a list of some Shiite mujtahids who were possible candidates for Marja'iyya.<ref>Rūḥānī, ''Nihḍat-i Imām Khomeini'', p. 77, 1238.</ref> | ||
In 1994, [[Muhammad 'Ali Araki]], the last living student of 'Abd al-Karim Ha'iri Yazdi, died. Since then, a number of mujtahids most of whom were students of Burujirdi and Khu'i were introduced as Shiite authorities. Although some of them have more followers than others, none of them has a global Marja'iyya. Here are the best-known living authorities (alive until May, 2017): [[Husayn Wahid Khurasani]], [[Lutf Allah Safi Gulpayigani]], [[Sayyid Musa Shubayri Zanjani]], [[Sayyid 'Ali Khamenei]], and [[Nasir Makarim Shirazi]] in Iran, and [[Sayyid 'Ali Sistani]] in Iraq. | In 1994, [[Muhammad 'Ali Araki]], the last living student of 'Abd al-Karim Ha'iri Yazdi, died. Since then, a number of mujtahids most of whom were students of Burujirdi and Khu'i were introduced as Shiite authorities. Although some of them have more followers than others, none of them has a global Marja'iyya. Here are the best-known living authorities (alive until May, 2017): [[Husayn Wahid Khurasani]], [[Lutf Allah Safi Gulpayigani]], [[Sayyid Musa Shubayri Zanjani]], [[Sayyid 'Ali Khamenei]], and [[Nasir Makarim Shirazi]] in Iran, and [[Sayyid 'Ali Sistani]] in Iraq. | ||
==Notes== | |||
{{Notes}} | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{references}} | {{references}} | ||
* | *Ābrāhāmīyān, Irwand. ''Tārīkh-i Īrān-i mudirn''. Translated by Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Fattāḥī. Tehran: Nashr-i Niy, 1392 Sh. | ||
*Ḥāʾirī, ʿAbd al-Hādī. ''Tashayyuʿ wa mashrūṭīyyat dar Īrān''. Tehran: Amīrkabīr, 1387 Sh. | |||
*Jaʿfarīyān, Rasūl. ''Tashayyuʿ dar ʿArāq marjaʿīyya wa Īrān''. Tehran: Muʾassisa-yi Muṭāliʿāt-i Tarīkh-i Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1386 Sh. | |||
*Khomeini, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh al-. ''Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil''. Tehran: 1426 AH. | |||
*Naqībzāda, Sayyid Aḥmad wa Amānī, Zūrām. ''Naqsh-i Rūḥānīyyat-i Shīʿa dar pīrūzī-yi inqilāb-i Islāmī''. Tehran: Markaz-i Asnād-i Inqilāb-i Islāmī, 1382 Sh. | |||
*Qurbānī, Muḥammad Ali. ''Tārikh-i taqlīd dar Shīʿa wa sayr-i taḥawwul-i ān''. Mashhad: Bunyād-i Pazhūhish hāyi Islāmī, 1394 Sh. | |||
*Rūḥānī, Sayyid Ḥamīd. ''Nihḍat-i Imām Khomeini''. Tehran: Muʾassisa-yi Chāp wa Nashr-i ʿUrūj, 1386 Sh. | |||
*Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, Sayyid Muḥammad Kāẓim. ''Al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā''. Second edition. Beirut: Muʿassisat al-Aʿlamī li l-Maṭbūʿāt, 1409 AH. | |||
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