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===Heyday of Hadithism=== | ===Heyday of Hadithism=== | ||
The fourth/tenth century is the period of the prominence of the hadithist school in [[Qom]]. Deductivist [[jurist]]s, such as [[Al-Hasan b. 'Ali al-Hadha' al-'Ummani|Ibn Abi 'Aqil al-Ummani]] and [[Ibn Junayd al-Iskafi]] were among the minority. Prominent scholars of fiqh in this period were [[Muhammad b. Ya'qub al-Kulayni]] (d. 329/ | The fourth/tenth century is the period of the prominence of the hadithist school in [[Qom]]. Deductivist [[jurist]]s, such as [[Al-Hasan b. 'Ali al-Hadha' al-'Ummani|Ibn Abi 'Aqil al-Ummani]] and [[Ibn Junayd al-Iskafi]] were among the minority. Prominent scholars of fiqh in this period were [[Muhammad b. Ya'qub al-Kulayni]] (d. 329/941), [['Ali b. Babawayh al-Qummi]] (d. 329/941), [[Ibn Qulawayh al-Qummi]] (d. 368/978-9) and [[al-Shaykh al-Saduq]] (d. 381/991-2), who significantly contributed to the production of the oldest collections of jurisprudential hadiths. | ||
===Approach to Demonstrative Fiqh=== | ===Approach to Demonstrative Fiqh=== | ||
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The first usage of the word "akhbari" appears in [[Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani|al-Shahristani]]'s ''[[al-Milal wa l-nihal]]'' in the first half of 6th/12th century. Subsequently, in [['Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi]]'s ''[[al-Naqd (book)|al-Naqd]]''—an Imamiyya scholar of the 6th/10th century—the terms, "Akhbari" and "Usuli," came to be used as antonyms. | The first usage of the word "akhbari" appears in [[Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani|al-Shahristani]]'s ''[[al-Milal wa l-nihal]]'' in the first half of 6th/12th century. Subsequently, in [['Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi]]'s ''[[al-Naqd (book)|al-Naqd]]''—an Imamiyya scholar of the 6th/10th century—the terms, "Akhbari" and "Usuli," came to be used as antonyms. | ||
The school of hadithist faqihs, that was undermined in late 4th and early 5th centuries (early 11th century) by Usulist faqihs, maintained its meager life, until when in early 11th/17th century it was revivied in a new form by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] (d. 1036/1626- | The school of hadithist faqihs, that was undermined in late 4th and early 5th centuries (early 11th century) by Usulist faqihs, maintained its meager life, until when in early 11th/17th century it was revivied in a new form by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] (d. 1036/1626-7). He sharply attacked Usulists. Some people believe that [[Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa'i]] was one of the scholars who paved the path for Akhbaris. In an essay, ''al-'Amal bi-akhbar ashabina'' (practicing the hadiths by our fellows), al-Ahsa'i raised some arguments for such a view. | ||
Given the backgrounds of Akhbarism, the application of the word "Akhbari" to a certain group of people with its contemporary notion has its origins in the 11th/17th century with the emergence of the new Akhbari movement by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] who was described as a "rigid Akhabari". | Given the backgrounds of Akhbarism, the application of the word "Akhbari" to a certain group of people with its contemporary notion has its origins in the 11th/17th century with the emergence of the new Akhbari movement by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] who was described as a "rigid Akhabari". | ||
===Decline of Akhbarism=== | ===Decline of Akhbarism=== | ||
With the emergence of the contrast between Akhbarism and Usulism in the 11th/17th century and with the emergence of prominent Usuli scholars such as [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] (d. 1205/1791), Akhbaris began to lose their influence in [[Shiite seminaries]]. Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani's role in the defeat of Akhbaris was crucial. Not only he did fight with Akhbaris in a theoretical field (by making arguments and objections), but he also took practical measures to undermine them, such as forbidding the saying of prayers with the leadership of [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]—the leader of Akhbaris. Subsequently, other Usuli scholars, such as [[al-Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari]] (d. 1281/1864) and [[al-Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita']] (d. 1227/ | With the emergence of the contrast between Akhbarism and Usulism in the 11th/17th century and with the emergence of prominent Usuli scholars such as [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] (d. 1205/1791), Akhbaris began to lose their influence in [[Shiite seminaries]]. Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani's role in the defeat of Akhbaris was crucial. Not only he did fight with Akhbaris in a theoretical field (by making arguments and objections), but he also took practical measures to undermine them, such as forbidding the saying of prayers with the leadership of [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]—the leader of Akhbaris. Subsequently, other Usuli scholars, such as [[al-Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari]] (d. 1281/1864) and [[al-Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita']] (d. 1227/1813) propagated Usulism by writing and teaching [[usul al-fiqh]], whereby Akhbarism nearly disappeared from Shiite seminary schools. Today Shiite schools are dominated by Usuli approach. | ||
==Radical Akhbaris== | ==Radical Akhbaris== | ||
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[['Abd Allah b. Salih al-Samahiji]] was a radical, zealous proponent of Akhbarism in the 11th/17th century, who wrote the book, ''[[Munyat l-mumarisin]]''. According to [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]], 'Abd Allah used to insult proponents of ijtihad, even though his father, Mulla Salih, was a mujtahid (Usuli). | [['Abd Allah b. Salih al-Samahiji]] was a radical, zealous proponent of Akhbarism in the 11th/17th century, who wrote the book, ''[[Munyat l-mumarisin]]''. According to [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]], 'Abd Allah used to insult proponents of ijtihad, even though his father, Mulla Salih, was a mujtahid (Usuli). | ||
Abu Ahmad Jamal al-Din Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Nabi al-Nisaburi al-Astarabadi (d. 1232/ | Abu Ahmad Jamal al-Din Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Nabi al-Nisaburi al-Astarabadi (d. 1232/1817), known as [[Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari]], insulted and disrespected prominent Usuli scholars, such as [[Mirza Abu l-Qasim al-Qummi]], [[al-Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita']], [[Sayyid 'Ali al-Tabataba'i]], [[al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Isfahani]] and [[Muhammad Ibrahim al-Kalbasi]]. This is why, the verdict on his execution was signed by scholars of that time, such as [[al-Sayyid Muhammad al-Mujahid]], son of Sayyid 'Ali al-Tabataba'i, [[Musa Kashif al-Ghita]], son of al-Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita', [[Sayyid 'Abd Allah Shubbar]], and [[al-Shaykh Asad Allah al-Kazimayni]]. | ||
==Moderate Akhbaris== | ==Moderate Akhbaris== | ||
[[Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186/1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of [[jurisprudence]] should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] explicitly opposed al-Bahrani, forbidding people from saying prayers under his leadership. Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani, as the leader of Akhbaris, asked them not to sharply oppose and criticize Usulis in order to prevent a split and conflict among Shiite scholars. [[Sayyid Ni'mat Allah al-Jaza'iri al-Shushtari]] (d. 1112/1701) was an Akhbari scholar, but he attempted a lot to appreciate Usuli scholars and their proponents. | [[Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186/1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of [[jurisprudence]] should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] explicitly opposed al-Bahrani, forbidding people from saying prayers under his leadership. Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani, as the leader of Akhbaris, asked them not to sharply oppose and criticize Usulis in order to prevent a split and conflict among Shiite scholars. [[Sayyid Ni'mat Allah al-Jaza'iri al-Shushtari]] (d. 1112/1701) was an Akhbari scholar, but he attempted a lot to appreciate Usuli scholars and their proponents. | ||
Some people have considered [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]] (d. 1091/1680 | Some people have considered [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]] (d. 1091/1680) as an Akhbari scholar. He says: "we follow the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]]s, and we do not know anything else". Though in this text he seems to oppose [[Sufism]], rather than [[ijtihad]] and usul, he also maintains that the minds of ordinary (non-infallible) people are imperfect and unreliable. In some of his works, such as ''[[al-Kalimat al-maknuna]]'', Fayd Kashani has explicitly attacked ijtihad and the method of usul. A consideration of such remarks assures us that he had tendencies to Akhbarism. He holds that Usulis, by establishing the method of usul, have made divine obligations too difficult—they have issued verdicts about things that God did not say anything about, in fact, it was part of [[divine wisdom]] to remain silent about those things. | ||
[[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]] (d. 1070/ | [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]] (d. 1070/1660) has been a moderate proponent of Akhbarism, and he is said to have explicitly defended the doctrines of [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]]. | ||
[[Mulla Khalil b. Ghazi al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/1678 | [[Mulla Khalil b. Ghazi al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/1678), a contemporary of [[al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili]], [[Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi]], and [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]], and a pupil of [[Baha' al-Din al-'Amili]] and [[Mir Damad]], opposed and denied the method of ijtihad. | ||
And al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili (d. 1104/1693) has referred to his Akhbari tendencies at the end of his well-known work in hadith, ''[[Wasa'il al-Shi'a]]''. | And al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili (d. 1104/1693) has referred to his Akhbari tendencies at the end of his well-known work in hadith, ''[[Wasa'il al-Shi'a]]''. | ||
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Along with his theoretical arguments against Akhbarism and for the method of ijtihad, al-Bihbahani took practical measures against Akhbaris as well. For example, he issued a [[fatwa]] according to which it was illegitimate to say prayers led by [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. As a consequence of such theoretical and practical struggles, Usuli scholars overtook the power and dominance in Shiite regions. | Along with his theoretical arguments against Akhbarism and for the method of ijtihad, al-Bihbahani took practical measures against Akhbaris as well. For example, he issued a [[fatwa]] according to which it was illegitimate to say prayers led by [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. As a consequence of such theoretical and practical struggles, Usuli scholars overtook the power and dominance in Shiite regions. | ||
A book by al-Bihbahani in rejecting Akhbarism and defending ijtihad is ''[[Risala al-ijtihad wa l-akhbar]]''. Given his serious and long theoretical and practical battles against Akhbarism, al-Wahid al-Bihbahani has been considered as the propagator of Shiism and the reviver of ijtihad in the 13th/ | A book by al-Bihbahani in rejecting Akhbarism and defending ijtihad is ''[[Risala al-ijtihad wa l-akhbar]]''. Given his serious and long theoretical and practical battles against Akhbarism, al-Wahid al-Bihbahani has been considered as the propagator of Shiism and the reviver of ijtihad in the 13th/19th century. | ||
===Al-Shaykh al-Ansari=== | ===Al-Shaykh al-Ansari=== | ||
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===Kashif al-Ghita'=== | ===Kashif al-Ghita'=== | ||
{{main|Al-Shaykh Ja'far al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghita'}} | {{main|Al-Shaykh Ja'far al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghita'}} | ||
Another Usuli scholar who seriously campaigned against Akhbarism was [[al-Shaykh Ja'far al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghita']] (d. 1227/ | Another Usuli scholar who seriously campaigned against Akhbarism was [[al-Shaykh Ja'far al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghita']] (d. 1227/1813), who opposed to [[Mirza Muhamamd al-Akhbari]], writing his well-known essay, ''[[Kashf al-ghita' 'an ma'ayib Mirza Muhammad 'aduww al-'ulama]]'' (uncovering the faults of Mirza Muhammad [al-Akhbari], the enemy of scholars). He sent this essay to [[Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar]] to discourage him from supporting Mirza Muhamamd. | ||
==Geographical Distribution== | ==Geographical Distribution== | ||
In 11th/17th through 13th/19th centuries, Akhbarism was popular in religious cities of [[Iran]] and [[Iraq]], as well as in [[Bahrain]] and [[India]]. At this time, much of the western parts of [[Qazvin]] was the center of Akhbaris who were pupils and followers of [[Mulla Khalil al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/ | In 11th/17th through 13th/19th centuries, Akhbarism was popular in religious cities of [[Iran]] and [[Iraq]], as well as in [[Bahrain]] and [[India]]. At this time, much of the western parts of [[Qazvin]] was the center of Akhbaris who were pupils and followers of [[Mulla Khalil al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/16789). This is why the city was an important center for the proponents of Akhbarism. After the campaigns against Akhbarism and the dominance of Usulism, their influence in this city was undermined. | ||
Today the only places in Iran where Akhbarism has considerable proponents are parts of the Khuzestan province, particularly Khorramshahr and Abadan. | Today the only places in Iran where Akhbarism has considerable proponents are parts of the Khuzestan province, particularly Khorramshahr and Abadan. | ||