Anonymous user
Al-Ma'mun: Difference between revisions
m
Revision + wikicheck
imported>Mortezanazarzadeh m (adding references.) |
imported>Mohammad.Kh m (Revision + wikicheck) |
||
| Line 28: | Line 28: | ||
'''Abū l-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh al-Maʾmūn''' (Arabic:{{iarabic|ابوالعباس عبدالله المأمون}}), (b. [[170]]/786 - d. [[218]]/833) the son of [[Harun al-Rashid]], was the 7th caliph of [[Abbasid dynasty]]. | '''Abū l-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh al-Maʾmūn''' (Arabic:{{iarabic|ابوالعباس عبدالله المأمون}}), (b. [[170]]/786 - d. [[218]]/833) the son of [[Harun al-Rashid]], was the 7th caliph of [[Abbasid dynasty]]. | ||
The first years of his reign were unstable because of his conflict with his brother, [[al-Amin]], and 'Alawi uprisings. Thus, in order to stabilize his caliphate, he called [[Imam al-Rida (a)]] from [[Medina]] to [[Merv]]. And to pretend that he was friendly with the progeny of [['Ali (a)]], he first offered to assign the caliphate to the Imam (a), and when the Imam (a) refused the offer, he forced Imam al-Rida (a) to accept his succession. After quenching 'Alawi uprisings and in order to gain more control of the | The first years of his reign were unstable because of his conflict with his brother, [[al-Amin]], and 'Alawi uprisings. Thus, in order to stabilize his caliphate, he called [[Imam al-Rida (a)]] from [[Medina]] to [[Merv]]. And to pretend that he was friendly with the progeny of [['Ali (a)]], he first offered to assign the caliphate to the Imam (a), and when the Imam (a) refused the offer, he forced Imam al-Rida (a) to accept his succession. After quenching 'Alawi uprisings and in order to gain more control of the territories under his caliphate, al-Ma'mun went from Merv to [[Baghdad]], and on his way, he martyred Imam al-Rida (a) because of his popularity among people. | ||
Al-Ma'mun is taken to be influenced by Shi'as because he believed that Imam 'Ali (a) was superior to others after the demise of [[the Prophet Muhammad (s)]], permitted [[temporary marriage]], and returned [[Fadak]] to the 'Alawis. However, he was taken to have Mu'tazili tendencies, because of his support for the [[Mu'tazila]], particularly with regard to the [[creation of the Qur'an]] and made high-ranking officials, judges, and scholars of his time testify that the Qur'an was created. | Al-Ma'mun is taken to be influenced by Shi'as because he believed that Imam 'Ali (a) was superior to others after the demise of [[the Prophet Muhammad (s)]], permitted [[temporary marriage]], and returned [[Fadak]] to the 'Alawis. However, he was taken to have Mu'tazili tendencies, because of his support for the [[Mu'tazila]], particularly with regard to the [[creation of the Qur'an]] and made high-ranking officials, judges, and scholars of his time testify that the Qur'an was created. | ||
| Line 42: | Line 42: | ||
'''Succession Challenge''' | '''Succession Challenge''' | ||
A main ground of conflict between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun was the issue of succession. When [[Harun]] pledged an allegiance to al-Amin—the younger brother—as his successor and appointed al-Ma'mun as al-Amin's successor and ruler of [[Khorasan]], conflicts began between the two brothers | A main ground of conflict between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun was the issue of succession. When [[Harun]] pledged an allegiance to al-Amin—the younger brother—as his successor and appointed al-Ma'mun as al-Amin's successor and ruler of [[Khorasan]], conflicts began between the two brothers which worried Harun about the future of the caliphate and the possibility of a civil war. Thus, Harun ordered the two brothers to make a written pledge in the [[Ka'ba]] to stay committed to each other's succession and not to interfere in each other's realms. To sanctify the pledge and make it more binding, a copy of it was hanged inside the Ka'ba.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 240-286.</ref> | ||
After Harun's death and al-Amin's caliphate, al-Amin acted in ways that implied violations of the pledge. His attempts to infiltrate the provinces under the rule of his two brothers, al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tamin; his selection of his son, Musa, as his successor; and finally, the burning of the pledge hanged inside the Ka'ba were considered as violations of the pledge and an official announcement of war with al-Ma'mun.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 387-389.</ref> | After Harun's death and al-Amin's caliphate, al-Amin acted in ways that implied violations of the pledge. His attempts to infiltrate the provinces under the rule of his two brothers, al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tamin; his selection of his son, Musa, as his successor; and finally, the burning of the pledge hanged inside the Ka'ba were considered as violations of the pledge and an official announcement of war with al-Ma'mun.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 387-389.</ref> | ||
| Line 51: | Line 51: | ||
===Result of the War=== | ===Result of the War=== | ||
Al-Ma'mun became the caliph after his wars with the then-caliph al-Amin al-'Abbasi. Drawing on al-Fadl b. Sahl's tact, al-Ma'mun sent an army under the commandership of [[Tahir b. al-Husayn]], known as Dhu l-Yaminayn, in order to combat 'Ali b. 'Isa, the commander of al-Amin's army. | Al-Ma'mun became the caliph after his wars with the then-caliph al-Amin al-'Abbasi. Drawing on al-Fadl b. Sahl's tact, al-Ma'mun sent an army under the commandership of [[Tahir b. al-Husayn]], known as Dhu l-Yaminayn, in order to combat 'Ali b. 'Isa, the commander of al-Amin's army. Al-Amin's army was defeated after the murder of 'Ali b. 'Isa in 195/810 in [[Rey]]. Eventually, al-Ma'mun's army took over Baghdad in 198/813 after a serious battle. After his defeat, al-Amin was imprisoned and killed.<ref>Ṭaqūsh, ''Dawlat-i ʿAbbāsīyān'', p. 130-131.</ref> With the end of al-Amin's caliphate, al-Ma'mun was officially selected as a caliph in 198/813 in Merv, and appointed al-Fadl b. Sahl as his vizier. | ||
==Relationship with Alawis== | ==Relationship with Alawis== | ||
| Line 57: | Line 57: | ||
===Alawi Uprisings=== | ===Alawi Uprisings=== | ||
In the period of al-Ma'mun, 'Alawis started a number of uprisings. Most of them were made by the [[Zaydi]] sect of 'Alawis. The most important such | In the period of al-Ma'mun, 'Alawis started a number of uprisings. Most of them were made by the [[Zaydi]] sect of 'Alawis. The most important of such uprisings which led to an independent government was the one made by a person called [[Ibn Tabataba]] in [[Kufa]]. It occurred in 199/814, and according to some historians, it was a heavy damage to the Abbasid government, leading to the formation of other fronts and autonomous governments in different areas against the Abbasid government by 'Alawis. Thus in addition to Kufa, [[Zayd b. Musa b. Ja'far]], known as Zayd al-Nar began an uprising in Basra, [[Ibrahim b. Musa b. Ja'far]] in [[Yemen]],<ref>Abū l-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī, ''Maqātil al-ṭālibīyyīn'', p. 355.</ref> [[al-Husayn b. al-Hasan b. 'Ali]] known as Ibn Aftas in [[Mecca]],<ref>Laythī, ''Jahād al-Shīʿa fī l-ʿaṣr al-ʿabbāsī al-awwal'', p. 326.</ref> and Muhammad b. Ja'far known as [[Muhammad al-Dibaj]] in Hijaz.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 7, p. 125.</ref> Most of these uprisings were formed after Ibn Tabataba's uprising.<ref>Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 141-144.</ref> | ||
'''Consequences''' | '''Consequences''' | ||
Although such uprisings did not last long, they had consequences. For example, the love of people in Iraq and Khorasan for [[Ahl al-Bayt (a)]] gave the 'Alawis an opportunity to begin uprisings against al-Ma'mun, and there were always some advocates of Ahl al-Bayt (a) in Khorasan and Iraq who supported 'Alawi uprisings. This undermined the stability of the Abbasid caliphate, leaving it with constant worries of riots throughout its territories.<ref>Mudarrisī, ''Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa junbishhā-yi maktabī'', p. 249-261.</ref> Another consequence of such uprisings was that they paved the path for the formation of Zaydi governments in [[Tabaristan]] and [[Yemen]] in later years.<ref>Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 148-149.</ref> | Although such uprisings did not last long, they had consequences. For example, the love of people in Iraq and Khorasan for [[Ahl al-Bayt (a)]] gave the 'Alawis an opportunity to begin uprisings against al-Ma'mun, and there were always some advocates of Ahl al-Bayt (a) in Khorasan and Iraq who supported 'Alawi uprisings. This undermined the stability of the Abbasid caliphate, leaving it with constant worries of riots throughout its territories.<ref>Mudarrisī, ''Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa junbishhā-yi maktabī'', p. 249-261.</ref> Another consequence of such uprisings was that they paved the path for the formation of Zaydi governments in [[Tabaristan]] and [[Yemen]] in later years.<ref>Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 148-149.</ref> | ||
| Line 86: | Line 87: | ||
According to some historians, Ibn Sahl's advisory assistance to al-Ma'mun was intended to make Merv the capital of the caliphate, instead of Baghdad, to make Khorasan superior to Iraq and other areas, and to give back to Persians the dignity they had lost after the humiliation of Persian Barmakids in the Abbasid system.<ref>Maḥmūd Ibrāhīm & Sharīf, ''al-ʿĀlam al-Islāmī fī l-ʿaṣe al-ʿAbbāsī'', vol. 5, p. 110.</ref> Thus, al-Fadl b. Sahl tried to conceal from the caliph any challenges threatening the greatness of Merv, Khorasan, and Persians. For example, removal of Tahir b. al-Husayn—the Arabic ruler of Baghdad—and the assignment of the position to a Persian ruler, al-Hasan b. Sahl; and the superiority of Persians to Arabs, which was reflected in the policies of al-Ma'mun, caused a riot in Baghdad. The Persian vizier tried to conceal the news of Baghdad from the caliph.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 546;Ṭaqūsh, ''Dawlat-i ʿAbbāsīyān'', p. 148.</ref> | According to some historians, Ibn Sahl's advisory assistance to al-Ma'mun was intended to make Merv the capital of the caliphate, instead of Baghdad, to make Khorasan superior to Iraq and other areas, and to give back to Persians the dignity they had lost after the humiliation of Persian Barmakids in the Abbasid system.<ref>Maḥmūd Ibrāhīm & Sharīf, ''al-ʿĀlam al-Islāmī fī l-ʿaṣe al-ʿAbbāsī'', vol. 5, p. 110.</ref> Thus, al-Fadl b. Sahl tried to conceal from the caliph any challenges threatening the greatness of Merv, Khorasan, and Persians. For example, removal of Tahir b. al-Husayn—the Arabic ruler of Baghdad—and the assignment of the position to a Persian ruler, al-Hasan b. Sahl; and the superiority of Persians to Arabs, which was reflected in the policies of al-Ma'mun, caused a riot in Baghdad. The Persian vizier tried to conceal the news of Baghdad from the caliph.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 546;Ṭaqūsh, ''Dawlat-i ʿAbbāsīyān'', p. 148.</ref> | ||
When al-Ma'mun was informed by Imam al-Rida (a) about the riots in Baghdad, he decided to leave Merv to Baghdad. The caliph learned that his return to Baghdad would be prevented by his Persian vizier. Moreover, concealment of such information made him pessimist of al-Fadl b. Sahl. Thus, early | When al-Ma'mun was informed by Imam al-Rida (a) about the riots in Baghdad, he decided to leave Merv to Baghdad. The caliph learned that his return to Baghdad would be prevented by his Persian vizier. Moreover, concealment of such information made him pessimist of al-Fadl b. Sahl. Thus, early on his journey to Baghdad, he killed his Persian vizier in Sarakhs in the hands of his secret agents.<ref>Dūrīyy, ''al-ʿAṣr al-ʿAbbāsī al-awwal'', p. 165.</ref> | ||
===Martyrdom of Imam al-Rida (a)=== | ===Martyrdom of Imam al-Rida (a)=== | ||
| Line 92: | Line 93: | ||
===Moving the Capital to Baghdad=== | ===Moving the Capital to Baghdad=== | ||
Al-Ma'mun's Persian and apparently anti-Abbasid policies always led to objections by prominent Abbasid figures and people of Baghdad. As a result, some prominent Abbasid figures in Baghdad did not accept al-Ma'mun's caliphate and pledged their allegiance to Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi. The protests began to | Al-Ma'mun's Persian and apparently anti-Abbasid policies always led to objections by prominent Abbasid figures and people of Baghdad. As a result, some prominent Abbasid figures in Baghdad did not accept al-Ma'mun's caliphate and pledged their allegiance to Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi. The protests began to destabilize Baghdad and led to a civil war.<ref>Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 8, p. 546.</ref> On the other hand, there was a serious unrest in [[Egypt]] and [[Jazira]] and the threat of a civil war among the Abbasids was looming large. The caliph came to the conclusion that these unrests could not be quenched except by change of his policies and moving the capital to Baghdad. Thus, he departed to Baghdad, the capital of his fathers.<ref>Ṭaqūsh, ''Dawlat-i ʿAbbāsīyān'', p. 148.</ref> | ||
===Return of Alawis to the Period of Hardship=== | ===Return of Alawis to the Period of Hardship=== | ||
| Line 105: | Line 106: | ||
==Shiism== | ==Shiism== | ||
Al-Ma'mun's tendency to Shiism has been a controversial issue between Shiite and Sunni historians as well as Orientalists. The Shi'as have always been pessimist about Abbasid caliphs, including al-Ma'mun, although he was more knowledgeable than other Abbasid caliphs and displayed | Al-Ma'mun's tendency to Shiism has been a controversial issue between Shiite and Sunni historians as well as Orientalists. The Shi'as have always been pessimist about Abbasid caliphs, including al-Ma'mun, although he was more knowledgeable than other Abbasid caliphs and displayed Shiite tendencies. Thus, they reject his Shiism as believed by Shiite Imams.<ref>Allāh Akbarī, ''ʿAbbāsīyān az biʿthat tā khilāfat'', p. 27.</ref> However, some Sunni sources have emphasized al-Ma'mun's Shiism. For instance, al-Dhahabi, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Khaldun explicitly held that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a. In some cases, they regarded the Abbasid government as a Shiite government.<ref>Dhahabī, ''Siyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ'', vol. 11, p. 236; Ibn Kathīr, ''al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya'', vol. 10, p. 275-279; Ibn khaldūn. ''al-ʿIbar'', vol. 2, p. 272.</ref> Al-Suyuti has also cited that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a.<ref>Suyūṭī, ''Tārīkh al-khulafāʾ'', p. 363.</ref> | ||
It was not only after his death that al-Ma'mun was considered as a Shi'a. Even during his caliphate, his tendency towards some Shiite beliefs led to the thought that he was a Shi'a. In some cases, his policies and actions in favor of 'Ali's (a) progeny was followed by accusations of being a [[Rafidi]] made by his own Abbasid kin residing in Baghdad.<ref>Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 141.</ref> | It was not only after his death that al-Ma'mun was considered as a Shi'a. Even during his caliphate, his tendency towards some Shiite beliefs led to the thought that he was a Shi'a. In some cases, his policies and actions in favor of 'Ali's (a) progeny was followed by accusations of being a [[Rafidi]] made by his own Abbasid kin residing in Baghdad.<ref>Naqawī, "Taʾthīr-i qīyāmhā-yi ʿalawīyān", p. 141.</ref> | ||
===Arguments for al-Ma'mun's Shiism=== | ===Arguments for al-Ma'mun's Shiism=== | ||
In historical sources, there are reports about al-Ma'mun's policies and actions during his caliphate which imply his | In historical sources, there are reports about al-Ma'mun's policies and actions during his caliphate which imply his Shiite tendencies. Here are some of such actions: | ||
'''Offering the caliphate and succession to 'Ali's (a) progeny''': people who claim that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a believe that the offer to assign the caliphate to Imam al-Rida (a) by al-Ma'mun was grounded in his approximately Mu'tazili and Shiite mindset, especially the belief in the superiority of Imam 'Ali (a). Moreover, al-Ma'mun's mother was Persian and believed in Imam 'Ali (a) and his progeny and al-Ma'mun was raised among Persians, especially people of Khorasan, and this led to his | '''Offering the caliphate and succession to 'Ali's (a) progeny''': people who claim that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a believe that the offer to assign the caliphate to Imam al-Rida (a) by al-Ma'mun was grounded in his approximately Mu'tazili and Shiite mindset, especially the belief in the superiority of Imam 'Ali (a). Moreover, al-Ma'mun's mother was Persian and believed in Imam 'Ali (a) and his progeny and al-Ma'mun was raised among Persians, especially people of Khorasan, and this led to his Shiite tendencies. Advocates of this view claim that al-Ma'mun pledged to God that if he defeats his brother, he will assign the caliphate to the most virtuous person from 'Ali's (a) progeny. Thus, after defeating al-Ma'mun, he kept his promise and selected Imam al-Rida (a) as his successor.<ref>Abū l-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī, ''Maqātil al-ṭālibīyyīn'', p. 454.</ref> This action by al-Ma'mun led some historians, such as al-Suyuti, to take him to be an extremist Shi'a.<ref>Suyūṭī, ''Tārīkh al-khulafāʾ'', p. 363.</ref> | ||
'''Returning Fadak to the progeny of [[Fatima (a)]]''': after returning to Baghdad and fully establishing his government, al-Ma'mun decided to return Fadak to the progeny of Fatima (a), despite severe oppositions. Thus, he invited 200 scholars to a meeting and asked them to express their views about Fadak. After hearing different views, they concluded that Fadak belonged to Fatima (a) and should, thus, be returned to its original heirs. Pressures by opponents led al-Ma'mun to hold another meeting with a greater number of scholars from the whole Islamic territory. The conclusion was still the same. Thus, in 210/825, he wrote to [[Qutham b. Ja'far]], the ruler of Medina, to return Fadak to the progeny of Fatima (a).<ref>Ḥamawī, ''Muʿjam al-buldān'', vol. 4, p. 240; Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 7, p. 156.</ref> According to some researchers, since the [[usurpation of Fadak]] was always a political instrument by caliphs to exert pressure on [[Ahl al-Bayt (a)]] and Shi'as, returning Fadak by al-Ma'mun shows his tendency to Ahl al-Bayt (a).<ref>Rahbar, "Fadak namād-i maẓlūmīyyat-i Ahl al-Bayt", p. 181.</ref> The news about the surrender of Fadak to its true owners was reflected in some poems. | '''Returning Fadak to the progeny of [[Fatima (a)]]''': after returning to Baghdad and fully establishing his government, al-Ma'mun decided to return Fadak to the progeny of Fatima (a), despite severe oppositions. Thus, he invited 200 scholars to a meeting and asked them to express their views about Fadak. After hearing different views, they concluded that Fadak belonged to Fatima (a) and should, thus, be returned to its original heirs. Pressures by opponents led al-Ma'mun to hold another meeting with a greater number of scholars from the whole Islamic territory. The conclusion was still the same. Thus, in 210/825, he wrote to [[Qutham b. Ja'far]], the ruler of Medina, to return Fadak to the progeny of Fatima (a).<ref>Ḥamawī, ''Muʿjam al-buldān'', vol. 4, p. 240; Ṭabarī, ''Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk'', vol. 7, p. 156.</ref> According to some researchers, since the [[usurpation of Fadak]] was always a political instrument by caliphs to exert pressure on [[Ahl al-Bayt (a)]] and Shi'as, returning Fadak by al-Ma'mun shows his tendency to Ahl al-Bayt (a).<ref>Rahbar, "Fadak namād-i maẓlūmīyyat-i Ahl al-Bayt", p. 181.</ref> The news about the surrender of Fadak to its true owners was reflected in some poems. | ||
| Line 126: | Line 127: | ||
===Arguments against al-Ma'mun's Shiism=== | ===Arguments against al-Ma'mun's Shiism=== | ||
''' | '''Shiite tendencies of al-Ma'mun grounded by his Mu'tazili thoughts''': some opponents of al-Ma'mun's Shiism believe that al-Ma'mun's Shiite tendencies were grounded in his Mu'tazili views. In that period, some of the Mu'tazila were very close in their views to Shi'as and 'Alawis. Similar to Shi'as, they believed in the superiority of Imam 'Ali (a) over other caliphs and supported Imam al-Rida's (a) succession of al-Ma'mun. According to this theory, al-Ma'mun did not offer caliphate to Imam al-Rida (a) on the basis of his belief in Twelver Shiism; rather he did so to pretend his love of the progeny of 'Ali (a) so as to continue to have the support of Persians who loved Ahl al-Bayt (a) and to prevent 'Alawi uprisings.<ref>Ṭaqūsh, ''Dawlat-i ʿAbbāsīyān'', p. 133-134.</ref> | ||
'''Al-Ma'mun's Shiism as a general Shiism''': some people have distinguished between two kinds of Shiism: | '''Al-Ma'mun's Shiism as a general Shiism''': some people have distinguished between two kinds of Shiism: | ||
| Line 132: | Line 133: | ||
* General Shiism, that is, the belief that Imam 'Ali (a) was the immediate successor of the Prophet (s), without following Ahl al-Bayt (a) in other beliefs and practices. Thus, the Shiism of al-Ma'mun, his father, Harun, and the rest of the Abbasids was a general Shiism.<ref>Mūsawī Kinturī, ''ʿAbaqāt al-anwār'', vol. 4, p. 109-113.</ref> | * General Shiism, that is, the belief that Imam 'Ali (a) was the immediate successor of the Prophet (s), without following Ahl al-Bayt (a) in other beliefs and practices. Thus, the Shiism of al-Ma'mun, his father, Harun, and the rest of the Abbasids was a general Shiism.<ref>Mūsawī Kinturī, ''ʿAbaqāt al-anwār'', vol. 4, p. 109-113.</ref> | ||
'''Imam-killing Shi'a''': [[Morteza Motahhari]] held that al-Ma'mun's debate with Sunni scholars regarding the superiority of the caliphate of Imam 'Ali (a) was unique and said: "surely no religious scholar has argued about the problem of caliphate as nicely as did al-Ma'mun. | '''Imam-killing Shi'a''': [[Morteza Motahhari]] held that al-Ma'mun's debate with Sunni scholars regarding the superiority of the caliphate of Imam 'Ali (a) was unique and said: "surely no religious scholar has argued about the problem of caliphate as nicely as did al-Ma'mun. He debated about the problem of the caliphate of [[Amir al-Mu'minin (a)]] and defeated everyone". Motahhari holds that al-Ma'mun's Shiite tendencies are undeniable, but he was an "Imam-killing" Shi'a, comparing it to the Shiism of people of [[Kufa]] in the period of the [[imamate]] of [[Imam al-Husayn (a)]] who ended up martyring him.<ref>Motahhari, ''Majmūʿa-yi āthār'', vol. 18, p. 118.</ref> | ||
==Science in the Period of al-Ma'mun== | ==Science in the Period of al-Ma'mun== | ||