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Akhbārīs are a group of Imamiyya jurisprudents (fuqaha) who take the only source of fiqh (the deduction of Sharia laws) to be akhbars (narrations and hadiths by the Prophet and Imams). The group emerged in 11th century A.H. (17th century). They disallowed the method of ijtihad and Usul al-Fiqh for the deduction of Sharia laws. They were opposed to Usuli jurisprudents (or fuqaha) who require the method of ijtihad and Usul al-Fiqh for the deduction of Sharia laws. | '''Akhbārīs''' are a group of Imamiyya jurisprudents (fuqaha) who take the only source of fiqh (the deduction of Sharia laws) to be akhbars (narrations and hadiths by the Prophet and Imams). The group emerged in 11th century A.H. (17th century). They disallowed the method of ijtihad and Usul al-Fiqh for the deduction of Sharia laws. They were opposed to Usuli jurisprudents (or fuqaha) who require the method of ijtihad and Usul al-Fiqh for the deduction of Sharia laws. | ||
The opposition between Imamiyya Akhbaris and Usulis was already there before the 17th century, though in a non-official and implicit fashion. However, in this century, the opposition increased, the terminologies of Akhbari and Usuli became current, and they explicitly expressed their oppositions to one another. | The opposition between Imamiyya Akhbaris and Usulis was already there before the 17th century, though in a non-official and implicit fashion. However, in this century, the opposition increased, the terminologies of Akhbari and Usuli became current, and they explicitly expressed their oppositions to one another. | ||
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Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi, the founder of Akhbarism among Imamiyya Shiites, is said to have been the first one to have criticized the method of Usul al-fiqh and ijtihad, classifying Imamiyya into Akhbaris and Mujtahids (that is, Usulis). He was a mujtahid himself, receiving his permission (al-ijaza) for ijtihad from prominent scholars, but he later refused to remain committed to their methodology. It seems that he has been much influenced by the thoughts of his teacher, [[Mirza Muhammad al-Astarabadi]]. Muhammad Amin wrote his doctrines and opinions in a book entitled al-Fawaʾid al-madaniyya, which is a major source of reference for Akhbaris. | Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi, the founder of Akhbarism among Imamiyya Shiites, is said to have been the first one to have criticized the method of Usul al-fiqh and ijtihad, classifying Imamiyya into Akhbaris and Mujtahids (that is, Usulis). He was a mujtahid himself, receiving his permission (al-ijaza) for ijtihad from prominent scholars, but he later refused to remain committed to their methodology. It seems that he has been much influenced by the thoughts of his teacher, [[Mirza Muhammad al-Astarabadi]]. Muhammad Amin wrote his doctrines and opinions in a book entitled al-Fawaʾid al-madaniyya, which is a major source of reference for Akhbaris. | ||
[[Abdullah b. Salih b. Jumuʾa al-Samahiji al-Bahrani]] was a radical, zealous proponent of Akhbarism in the 11th century A.H. (17th century), who wrote the book, Munya al-mumarisin. According to [[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]], Abdulla used to insult proponents of ijtihad, even though his father, Mulla Salih, was a mujtahid. | [[Abdullah b. Salih b. Jumuʾa al-Samahiji al-Bahrani]] was a radical, zealous proponent of Akhbarism in the 11th century A.H. (17th century), who wrote the book, Munya al-mumarisin. According to [[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]], Abdulla used to insult proponents of ijtihad, even though his father, Mulla Salih, was a mujtahid. | ||
Abu Ahmad Jamal al-Din Muhammad b. Abd al-Nabi al-Nishaburi al-Astarabadi (d. 1232 A.H./ 1817), known as [[Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari]], insulted and disrespected prominent Usuli scholars, such as [[Mirza Abu al-Qasim al-Qumi]], [[Shaykh Jaʾfar al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]], [[Mir Sayyid ʾAli al-Tabatabaʾi]], [[Sayyid Muhammad Baqir Hujjat al-Islam al-Isfahani]] and [[Muhammad Ibrahim al-Kalbasi]]. This is why, the verdict on his execution was signed by scholars of that time, such as [[Sayyid Muhammad al-Mujahid]], son of Mir Sayyid ʾAli al-Tabatabaʾi, Shaykh Musa, son of Shaykh Jaʾfar Kashif al-Ghitaʾ, [[Sayyid ʾAbdullah al-Shubbar]] and [[Shaykh Asadullah al-Kazimayni]]. | Abu Ahmad Jamal al-Din Muhammad b. Abd al-Nabi al-Nishaburi al-Astarabadi (d. 1232 A.H./ 1817), known as [[Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari]], insulted and disrespected prominent Usuli scholars, such as [[Mirza Abu al-Qasim al-Qumi]], [[Shaykh Jaʾfar al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]], [[Mir Sayyid ʾAli al-Tabatabaʾi]], [[Sayyid Muhammad Baqir Hujjat al-Islam al-Isfahani]] and [[Muhammad Ibrahim al-Kalbasi]]. This is why, the verdict on his execution was signed by scholars of that time, such as [[Sayyid Muhammad al-Mujahid]], son of Mir Sayyid ʾAli al-Tabatabaʾi, Shaykh Musa, son of Shaykh Jaʾfar Kashif al-Ghitaʾ, [[Sayyid ʾAbdullah al-Shubbar]] and [[Shaykh Asadullah al-Kazimayni]]. | ||
==Moderate Akhbaris== | ==Moderate Akhbaris== | ||
[[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186 A.H./ 1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of fiqh should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[Vahid al-Bihbahani]] explicitly opposed al-Bahrani, forbidding people from saying prayers under his leadership. Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani, as the leader of Akhbaris, asked them not to sharply oppose and criticize Usulis in order to prevent a split and conflict among Shiite scholars. | [[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186 A.H./ 1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of fiqh should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[Vahid al-Bihbahani]] explicitly opposed al-Bahrani, forbidding people from saying prayers under his leadership. Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani, as the leader of Akhbaris, asked them not to sharply oppose and criticize Usulis in order to prevent a split and conflict among Shiite scholars. | ||
[[Sayyid Naʾmatullah al-Jazaʾiri al-Shushtari]] (d. 1112 A.H./ 1700) was an Akhbari scholar, but he attempted a lot to appreciate Mujtahids and Usuli scholars and their proponents. | [[Sayyid Naʾmatullah al-Jazaʾiri al-Shushtari]] (d. 1112 A.H./ 1700) was an Akhbari scholar, but he attempted a lot to appreciate Mujtahids and Usuli scholars and their proponents. | ||
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==Combat against Akhbarism== | ==Combat against Akhbarism== | ||
===Vahid al-Bihbahani=== | ===Vahid al-Bihbahani=== | ||
The Usuli-Akhbari struggle, which began in the 11th century A.H. (17th century) and continued with the emergence of Akhbari extremism, turned into a consistent and serious fight against Akhbarism by Usuli scholars, most prominent of whom was Vahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205 A.H./ 1791). At this time, many cities in [[Iraq]], particularly [[Karbala]] and [[Najaf]], were centers of Akhbarism, administered and led by [[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. Proponents of Usul and ijtihad were isolated at this point, until Vahid migrated to Karbala and started a serious, persistent campaign against Akhbarism. | The Usuli-Akhbari struggle, which began in the 11th century A.H. (17th century) and continued with the emergence of Akhbari extremism, turned into a consistent and serious fight against Akhbarism by Usuli scholars, most prominent of whom was Vahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205 A.H./ 1791). At this time, many cities in [[Iraq]], particularly [[Karbala]] and [[Najaf]], were centers of Akhbarism, administered and led by [[Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. Proponents of Usul and ijtihad were isolated at this point, until Vahid migrated to Karbala and started a serious, persistent campaign against Akhbarism. | ||
Along with his theoretical arguments against Akhbarism and for the method of ijtihad, Vahid took practical measures against Akhbaris as well. For example, he issued a fatwa according to wchih it was illegitimate to say prayers under the leadership of Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani. As a consequence of such theoretical and practical struggles, Usuli scholars overtook the power and dominance in Shiite regions. | Along with his theoretical arguments against Akhbarism and for the method of ijtihad, Vahid took practical measures against Akhbaris as well. For example, he issued a fatwa according to wchih it was illegitimate to say prayers under the leadership of Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani. As a consequence of such theoretical and practical struggles, Usuli scholars overtook the power and dominance in Shiite regions. | ||
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Another Usuli scholar who seriously campaigned against Akhbarism was [[Shaykh Jaʾfar al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]] (d. 1227 or 1228 A.H./ 1812 or 1813), who opposed to [[Mirza Muhamamd al-Akhbari]], writing his well-known essay, Kashf al-ghitaʾ ʾan maʾaʾib-i Mirza Muhammad ʾaduw al-ʾulama (uncovering the faults of Mirza Muhammad [al-Akhbari], the enemy of scholars). He sent this essay to [[Fatʾhali Shah Qajar]] to discourage him from supporting Mirza Muhamamd. | Another Usuli scholar who seriously campaigned against Akhbarism was [[Shaykh Jaʾfar al-Najafi Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]] (d. 1227 or 1228 A.H./ 1812 or 1813), who opposed to [[Mirza Muhamamd al-Akhbari]], writing his well-known essay, Kashf al-ghitaʾ ʾan maʾaʾib-i Mirza Muhammad ʾaduw al-ʾulama (uncovering the faults of Mirza Muhammad [al-Akhbari], the enemy of scholars). He sent this essay to [[Fatʾhali Shah Qajar]] to discourage him from supporting Mirza Muhamamd. | ||
In 11th through 13th centuries A.H. (17th to 19th centuries), Akhbarism was popular in religious cities of Iran and Iran, as well as in [[Bahrain]] and [[India]]. At this time, much of the western parts of [[Qazvin]] was the center of akhbaris who were pupils and followers of [[Mulla Khalil al-Qazvini]] (d. 1089 A.H./ 1679). This is why, the city was an important center for the proponents of Akhbarism. After the campaigns against Akhbarism and the dominance of Usulism, their influence in this city was undermined. | <nowiki>==The Geographical Distribution of Akhbaris==</nowiki> In 11th through 13th centuries A.H. (17th to 19th centuries), Akhbarism was popular in religious cities of Iran and Iran, as well as in [[Bahrain]] and [[India]]. At this time, much of the western parts of [[Qazvin]] was the center of akhbaris who were pupils and followers of [[Mulla Khalil al-Qazvini]] (d. 1089 A.H./ 1679). This is why, the city was an important center for the proponents of Akhbarism. After the campaigns against Akhbarism and the dominance of Usulism, their influence in this city was undermined. | ||
Today the only places in Iran where Akhbarism has considerable proponents are parts of the Khuzestan province, particularly Khorramshahr and Abadan. | Today the only places in Iran where Akhbarism has considerable proponents are parts of the Khuzestan province, particularly Khorramshahr and Abadan. | ||
[[Sayyid Naʾmatullah al-Jazaʾiri in his Manbaʾ al-hayat and [[Mulla Radi al-Qazvini in his Lisan al-khawas have mentioned major points of disagreement between Akhbaris and Usulis. Moreover, [[Abdulla b. Salih al-Samahiji al-Bahrani]] has mentioned 40 points of dispute between them in his Munya al-mumarisin. [[Shaykh Jaʾfar Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]] has considered such disagreements in his al-Haq al-mubin, and [[Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari]] has cited 59 points of disagreement in his al-Tuhr al-fasil. [[Sayyid Muhammad al-Dizfuli has referred to 86 points of dispue in his Faruq al-haq, and al-Hurr al-ʾAmili has mentioned 92 disagreements in his al-Faqaʾid al-tusiyya. | <nowiki>==Major Disagreements between Akhbaris and Usulis==</nowiki> [[Sayyid Naʾmatullah al-Jazaʾiri in his Manbaʾ al-hayat and [[Mulla Radi al-Qazvini in his Lisan al-khawas have mentioned major points of disagreement between Akhbaris and Usulis. Moreover, [[Abdulla b. Salih al-Samahiji al-Bahrani]] has mentioned 40 points of dispute between them in his Munya al-mumarisin. [[Shaykh Jaʾfar Kashif al-Ghitaʾ]] has considered such disagreements in his al-Haq al-mubin, and [[Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari]] has cited 59 points of disagreement in his al-Tuhr al-fasil. [[Sayyid Muhammad al-Dizfuli has referred to 86 points of dispue in his Faruq al-haq, and al-Hurr al-ʾAmili has mentioned 92 disagreements in his al-Faqaʾid al-tusiyya. | ||
===Illegitimacy of Ijtihad=== | ===Illegitimacy of Ijtihad=== | ||
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===Other Disagreements=== | ===Other Disagreements=== | ||
1. Akhbaris forbid the acquisition of probable beliefs (ẓann), and unlike the proponents of ijtihad, they just take "certitude" or "certain knowledge" to be reliable. | 1. Akhbaris forbid the acquisition of probable beliefs (ẓann), and unlike the proponents of ijtihad, they just take "certitude" or "certain knowledge" to be reliable. | ||
2. Classification of hadiths: for Akhbaris, hadiths are just classified into sound and weak, but for Usulis, there are 4 classes of hadiths: sound (sahih), reliable (muwathaq), good (hasan) and weak (ḍaʾif). | 2. Classification of hadiths: for Akhbaris, hadiths are just classified into sound and weak, but for Usulis, there are 4 classes of hadiths: sound (sahih), reliable (muwathaq), good (hasan) and weak (ḍaʾif). | ||
3. Following people other than the infallible (maʾsum): Usulis classify people into [[mujtahid]] and [[muqalid]] (or follower of mujtahid), but for Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to follow a non-infallible person (people other than the Prophet and Imams). | 3. Following people other than the infallible (maʾsum): Usulis classify people into [[mujtahid]] and [[muqalid]] (or follower of mujtahid), but for Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to follow a non-infallible person (people other than the Prophet and Imams). | ||
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5. For Akhbaris, unlike Usulis, all hadiths contained in al-Kutub al-Arbaʾa (the four major Shiite hadith collections) are sound and reliable. | 5. For Akhbaris, unlike Usulis, all hadiths contained in al-Kutub al-Arbaʾa (the four major Shiite hadith collections) are sound and reliable. | ||
6. Akhbaris accept rational goodness and badness (al-husn wa al-qubh al-aqli), but unlike Usulis, they do not take independent rational verdicts (that is, those not confirmed by Sharia) to be religiously reliable. | 6. Akhbaris accept rational goodness and badness (al-husn wa al-qubh al-aqli), but unlike Usulis, they do not take independent rational verdicts (that is, those not confirmed by Sharia) to be religiously reliable. | ||
7. For Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to act upon some analogies and syllogisms such as priority analogy (qiyas al-awlawiyya), the analogy in which the reason/cause is explicitly mentioned (al-qiyas-u mansus al-ʾilla) and the clarification of the criterion (tanqih al-manat), though Usulis consider them as legitimate. | 7. For Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to act upon some analogies and syllogisms such as priority analogy (qiyas al-awlawiyya), the analogy in which the reason/cause is explicitly mentioned (al-qiyas-u mansus al-ʾilla) and the clarification of the criterion (tanqih al-manat), though Usulis consider them as legitimate. | ||
8. The principle of exoneration (asala al-baraʾa): for Usulis, the principle of exoneration applies to cases of doubting the illegitimacy or forbiddingness of an act (al-shubha al-hukmiyya al-tahrimiyya), as well as cases of doubting the obligation (al-shubha al-hukmiyya al-wujubiyya), but for Akhbaris, it only applies in the second type of cases. | 8. The principle of exoneration (asala al-baraʾa): for Usulis, the principle of exoneration applies to cases of doubting the illegitimacy or forbiddingness of an act (al-shubha al-hukmiyya al-tahrimiyya), as well as cases of doubting the obligation (al-shubha al-hukmiyya al-wujubiyya), but for Akhbaris, it only applies in the second type of cases. | ||
9. The principle of exoneration regarding the conflict between hadiths: unlike Usulis, Akhbaris do not allow an appeal to the principle of exoneration regarding a conflict between hadiths, as al-Astarabadi says in his al-Fawaʾid al-madaniyya: | 9. The principle of exoneration regarding the conflict between hadiths: unlike Usulis, Akhbaris do not allow an appeal to the principle of exoneration regarding a conflict between hadiths, as al-Astarabadi says in his al-Fawaʾid al-madaniyya: | ||
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==European Writers on Akhbari-Usuli Bifurcation== | ==European Writers on Akhbari-Usuli Bifurcation== | ||
In the second half of the 20th century, more research by European scholars has been produced concerning Akhbaris. In 1958, Scarcia presented a detailed account of the disputes between Akhbaris and Usulis in his "Intorno alle controversie tra 'Ahbari' e 'Usuli' presso gli Imamiti di Persia" (On controversies between Akhbaris and Usulis of Iranian Imamiyya). Then Madelung introduced Akhbaris in a 1980 article in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Moreover, Kohlberg wrote a paper under "Akhbaris" in 1985. | In the second half of the 20th century, more research by European scholars has been produced concerning Akhbaris. In 1958, Scarcia presented a detailed account of the disputes between Akhbaris and Usulis in his "Intorno alle controversie tra 'Ahbari' e 'Usuli' presso gli Imamiti di Persia" (On controversies between Akhbaris and Usulis of Iranian Imamiyya). Then Madelung introduced Akhbaris in a 1980 article in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Moreover, Kohlberg wrote a paper under "Akhbaris" in 1985. | ||
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