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==Origins and Historical Formation== | ==Origins and Historical Formation== | ||
The contrast between Akhbari and Usuli schools in the [[Imamiyya]] [[jurisprudence]] | The contrast between Akhbari and Usuli schools in the [[Imamiyya]] [[jurisprudence]] can be traced back to the early centuries of Islam. Within Imamiyya schools of fiqh in the first three centuries A.H. (7th to 10th centuries), there were tendencies to deduce the laws of shari'a, in contrast to those who followed the letter of hadiths without making any deductions. | ||
===Heyday of Hadithism=== | ===Heyday of Hadithism=== | ||
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With [[al-Shaykh al-Mufid]] (d. 413/1022) and [[al-Sharif al-Murtada]] (d. 436/1044-45) and [[al-Shaykh al-Tusi]] (d. 460/1067), who wrote the first works concerning the principles (usul) of Imamiyya fiqh, a new movement began in [[Imamiyya]] directing the tendencies of Imamiyya [[jurist]]s to deductive fiqh (instead of hadithism) for centuries. The contrast between the two tendencies can be seen in the works of the above scholars. In his ''[[Awa'il al-maqalat]]'', al-Shaykh al-Mufid mentions scholars of deductive jurisprudence as "faqihs", and hadithists as "ahl al-naql" (people of narration), "ashab al-athar" and the like. In an essay by al-Sharif al-Murtada, "ashab al-hadith" is opposed to scholars of fiqh with a method of usul who were supported by him. | With [[al-Shaykh al-Mufid]] (d. 413/1022) and [[al-Sharif al-Murtada]] (d. 436/1044-45) and [[al-Shaykh al-Tusi]] (d. 460/1067), who wrote the first works concerning the principles (usul) of Imamiyya fiqh, a new movement began in [[Imamiyya]] directing the tendencies of Imamiyya [[jurist]]s to deductive fiqh (instead of hadithism) for centuries. The contrast between the two tendencies can be seen in the works of the above scholars. In his ''[[Awa'il al-maqalat]]'', al-Shaykh al-Mufid mentions scholars of deductive jurisprudence as "faqihs", and hadithists as "ahl al-naql" (people of narration), "ashab al-athar" and the like. In an essay by al-Sharif al-Murtada, "ashab al-hadith" is opposed to scholars of fiqh with a method of usul who were supported by him. | ||
===Emergence of "Akhbari" | ===Emergence of the Term "Akhbari"=== | ||
The first usage of the word "akhbari" appears in [[Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani|al-Shahristani]]'s ''[[al-Milal wa l-nihal]]'' in the first half of 6th/12th century. Subsequently, in [['Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi]]'s ''[[al-Naqd (book)|al-Naqd]]''—an Imamiyya scholar of the 6th/10th century—the terms, "Akhbari" and "Usuli," came to be used as | The first usage of the word "akhbari" appears in [[Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani|al-Shahristani]]'s ''[[al-Milal wa l-nihal]]'' in the first half of 6th/12th century. Subsequently, in [['Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi]]'s ''[[al-Naqd (book)|al-Naqd]]''—an Imamiyya scholar of the 6th/10th century—the terms, "Akhbari" and "Usuli," came to be used as antonyms. | ||
The school of hadithist faqihs, that was undermined in late 4th and early 5th centuries (early 11th century) by Usulist faqihs, maintained its meager life, until when in early 11th/17th century it was revivied in a new form by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] (d. 1036/1626-27). He sharply attacked Usulists. Some people believe that [[Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa'i]] was one of the scholars who paved the path for Akhbaris. In an essay, ''al-'Amal bi-akhbar ashabina'' (practicing the hadiths by our fellows), al-Ahsa'i raised some arguments for such a view. | The school of hadithist faqihs, that was undermined in late 4th and early 5th centuries (early 11th century) by Usulist faqihs, maintained its meager life, until when in early 11th/17th century it was revivied in a new form by [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]] (d. 1036/1626-27). He sharply attacked Usulists. Some people believe that [[Ibn Abi Jumhur al-Ahsa'i]] was one of the scholars who paved the path for Akhbaris. In an essay, ''al-'Amal bi-akhbar ashabina'' (practicing the hadiths by our fellows), al-Ahsa'i raised some arguments for such a view. | ||
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===Decline of Akhbarism=== | ===Decline of Akhbarism=== | ||
With the emergence of the contrast between Akhbarism and Usulism in the 11th/17th century and with the emergence of prominent Usuli scholars such as [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] (d. 1205/1791), Akhbaris began to lose their influence in [[Shiite seminaries]]. | With the emergence of the contrast between Akhbarism and Usulism in the 11th/17th century and with the emergence of prominent Usuli scholars such as [[al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] (d. 1205/1791), Akhbaris began to lose their influence in [[Shiite seminaries]]. Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani's role in the defeat of Akhbaris was crucial. Not only he did fight with Akhbaris in a theoretical field (by making arguments and objections), but he also took practical measures to undermine them, such as forbidding the saying of prayers with the leadership of [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]—the leader of Akhbaris. Subsequently, other Usuli scholars, such as [[al-Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari]] (d. 1281/1864) and [[al-Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita']] (d. 1227/1812) propagated Usulism by writing and teaching [[usul al-fiqh]], whereby Akhbarism nearly disappeared from Shiite seminary schools. Today Shiite schools are dominated by Usuli approach. | ||
==Radical Akhbaris== | ==Radical Akhbaris== | ||
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==Moderate Akhbaris== | ==Moderate Akhbaris== | ||
[[Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186/1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of [[jurisprudence]] should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[ | [[Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]] (d. 1186/1772) adopted a methodology in between Akhbarism and Usulism. Al-Bahrani claimed that the methodology of [[jurisprudence]] should be in accordance with [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]]'s method that provides a middle way between Akhbarism and Usulism. [[Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani]] explicitly opposed al-Bahrani, forbidding people from saying prayers under his leadership. Al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani, as the leader of Akhbaris, asked them not to sharply oppose and criticize Usulis in order to prevent a split and conflict among Shiite scholars. [[Sayyid Ni'mat Allah al-Jaza'iri al-Shushtari]] (d. 1112/1701) was an Akhbari scholar, but he attempted a lot to appreciate Usuli scholars and their proponents. | ||
Some people have considered [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]] (d. 1091/1680-1681) as an Akhbari scholar. He says: "we follow the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]]s, and we do not know anything else". Though in this text he seems to oppose [[Sufism]], rather than [[ijtihad]] and usul, he also maintains that the minds of ordinary (non-infallible) people are imperfect and unreliable. In some of his | Some people have considered [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]] (d. 1091/1680-1681) as an Akhbari scholar. He says: "we follow the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]]s, and we do not know anything else". Though in this text he seems to oppose [[Sufism]], rather than [[ijtihad]] and usul, he also maintains that the minds of ordinary (non-infallible) people are imperfect and unreliable. In some of his works, such as ''[[al-Kalimat al-maknuna]]'', Fayd Kashani has explicitly attacked ijtihad and the method of usul. A consideration of such remarks assures us that he had tendencies to Akhbarism. He holds that Usulis, by establishing the method of usul, have made divine obligations too difficult—they have issued verdicts about things that God did not say anything about, in fact, it was part of [[divine wisdom]] to remain silent about those things. | ||
[[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]] (d. 1070/1659-60) has been a moderate proponent of Akhbarism, and he is said to have explicitly defended the doctrines of [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]]. | [[Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi]] (d. 1070/1659-60) has been a moderate proponent of Akhbarism, and he is said to have explicitly defended the doctrines of [[Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi]]. | ||
[[Mulla Khalil b. Ghazi al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/1678-79), contemporary | [[Mulla Khalil b. Ghazi al-Qazwini]] (d. 1089/1678-79), a contemporary of [[al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili]], [[Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi]], and [[Mulla Muhsin Fayd Kashani]], and a pupil of [[Baha' al-Din al-'Amili]] and [[Mir Damad]], opposed and denied the method of ijtihad. | ||
And al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili (d. 1104/1693) has referred to his Akhbari tendencies at the end of his well-known work in hadith, ''[[Wasa'il al-Shi'a]]''. | And al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili (d. 1104/1693) has referred to his Akhbari tendencies at the end of his well-known work in hadith, ''[[Wasa'il al-Shi'a]]''. | ||
==Combat against Akhbarism== | ==Combat against Akhbarism== | ||
=== | === Al-Wahid al-Bihbahani=== | ||
{{main|Muhammad Baqir al-Bihbahani}} | {{main|Muhammad Baqir al-Bihbahani}} | ||
The Usuli-Akhbari struggle, which began in the 11th/17th century and continued with the emergence of Akhbari extremism, turned into a consistent and serious fight against Akhbarism by Usuli scholars, most prominent of whom was al-Wahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205/1791). At this time, many cities in [[Iraq]], particularly [[Karbala]] and [[Najaf]], were centers of Akhbarism, administered and led by [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. Proponents of Usul and [[ijtihad]] were isolated at this point until al-Bihbahani migrated to Karbala and started a serious, persistent campaign against Akhbarism. | The Usuli-Akhbari struggle, which began in the 11th/17th century and continued with the emergence of Akhbari extremism, turned into a consistent and serious fight against Akhbarism by Usuli scholars, most prominent of whom was al-Wahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205/1791). At this time, many cities in [[Iraq]], particularly [[Karbala]] and [[Najaf]], were centers of Akhbarism, administered and led by [[al-Shaykh Yusuf al-Bahrani]]. Proponents of Usul and [[ijtihad]] were isolated at this point until al-Bihbahani migrated to Karbala and started a serious, persistent campaign against Akhbarism. | ||
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===Other Disagreements=== | ===Other Disagreements=== | ||
* Akhbaris forbid the acquisition of probable beliefs (ẓann), and unlike the proponents of [[ijtihad]], they just take "certitude" or "certain knowledge" to be reliable. | * Akhbaris forbid the acquisition of probable beliefs (ẓann), and unlike the proponents of [[ijtihad]], they just take "certitude" or "certain knowledge" to be reliable. | ||
* [[Classification of hadith]]s: for Akhbaris, hadiths are just classified into sound and weak, but for Usulis, there are | * [[Classification of hadith]]s: for Akhbaris, hadiths are just classified into sound and weak, but for Usulis, there are four classes of hadiths: sound (sahih), reliable (muwaththaq), good (hasan) and weak (ḍa'if). | ||
* Following people other than the [[infallible]]: Usulis classify people into [[mujtahid]] and [[muqallid]] (or follower of mujtahid), but for Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to follow a non-infallible person (people other than the [[Prophet (s)]] and [[Imams (a)]]). | * Following people other than the [[infallible]]: Usulis classify people into [[mujtahid]] and [[muqallid]] (or follower of mujtahid), but for Akhbaris, it is illegitimate to follow a non-infallible person (people other than the [[Prophet (s)]] and [[Imams (a)]]). | ||
* Taking the apparent meanings of the [[Qur'an]] at face value: for Usulis, the apparent meanings of the Qur'an are reliable, trumping the apparent meanings of hadiths, but for Akhbaris, it is legitimate to rely on the apparent meanings of the Qur'an only when there is a confirming interpretation by the Prophet (s) or an Imam (a). | * Taking the apparent meanings of the [[Qur'an]] at face value: for Usulis, the apparent meanings of the Qur'an are reliable, trumping the apparent meanings of hadiths, but for Akhbaris, it is legitimate to rely on the apparent meanings of the Qur'an only when there is a confirming interpretation by the Prophet (s) or an Imam (a). | ||
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* The principle of exoneration regarding the conflict between hadiths: unlike Usulis, Akhbaris do not allow an appeal to the principle of exoneration regarding a conflict between hadiths, as al-Astarabadi says in his ''[[al-Fawa'id al-madaniyya]]'': | * The principle of exoneration regarding the conflict between hadiths: unlike Usulis, Akhbaris do not allow an appeal to the principle of exoneration regarding a conflict between hadiths, as al-Astarabadi says in his ''[[al-Fawa'id al-madaniyya]]'': | ||
:"I hold that the appeal to the principle of exoneration (asalat al-bara'a) was permissible before the perfection of the religion, but after that, there is no room for such a principle, since there are sufficient numbers hadiths at our disposal with regard to any | :"I hold that the appeal to the principle of exoneration (asalat al-bara'a) was permissible before the perfection of the religion, but after that, there is no room for such a principle, since there are sufficient numbers of hadiths at our disposal with regard to any affair and event that we need a verdict for, and for any disputes between any two people." | ||
==Relation with Shaykhiyya== | ==Relation with Shaykhiyya== | ||