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Autopsy or Dissection involves the surgical incision of a deceased person's body for purposes of medical education, disease diagnosis and treatment, or criminal investigation. This subject is classified as one of the newly emerged jurisprudential issues. According to many Shi'a jurists, dissecting the body of a Muslim is haram and necessitates the payment of diya. Jurists generally consider the dissection of a Kafir's body to be permissible; however, in instances where a non-Muslim body is unavailable, there is disagreement regarding the use of a Muslim body. Some jurists, such as Imam Khomeini and Lutfullah Safi Gulpayigani, maintain that the dissection of a Muslim body is permissible only when saving the life of a Muslim depends upon it. In contrast, authorities such as Nasir Makarim Shirazi and Ishaq al-Fayyad have permitted the autopsy of a Muslim body for medical training and criminal investigations under specific conditions.

Jurists maintain that whenever the dissection of a Muslim is performed in a prohibited manner, the associated diya must be paid. They further rule that this diya does not belong to the heirs of the deceased; rather, some scholars, such as Al-Sayyid al-Murtada and Ibn Idris al-Hilli, consider the diya to be the right of the Bayt al-Mal, while others, like al-Shaykh al-Tusi, believe the diya should be used for acts of worship performed on behalf of the deceased.

Definition and History

A page from the book Tashrīḥ al-abdān written by Manṣūr b. Ilyās Shīrāzī

Autopsy is one of the newly emerged jurisprudential issues[1] and is defined as the dissection or cutting of a part of a deceased human body for reasons such as medical training, disease discovery and treatment, or criminal investigation.[2] Scholars have also examined the significance of autopsy from these perspectives.[3] In the field of jurisprudence, the history of this discussion traces back to issues involving the ruling on beheading a deceased Muslim, referred to as "Tankīl al-mayyit" (mutilation of the dead).[4]

According to The Great Islamic Encyclopedia, the history of autopsy dates back to the 6th century BC and Alcmaeon of Croton, the most prominent Greek physician before Hippocrates.[5] With the translation of certain Greek works into Arabic during the 2nd/8th and 3rd/9th centuries, Greek autopsy sources were integrated into Islamic culture.[6] Muslim scientists such as Asma'i, Ibn Masawayh, Jabir b. Hayyan, and Zakariyya al-Razi addressed this subject by writing books such as Khalq al-insān and Tashrīḥ, or by completing their predecessors' works.[7] Additionally, one of the famous Persian works written in the field of dissection is the book Tashrih al-abdan by Mansur b. Ilyas Shirazi in the 8th/14th century.[8]

Shari'a Ruling on Autopsy

Citing specific hadiths, Shi'a jurists generally do not consider dissecting the body of a Muslim to be permissible.[9] However, some jurists have ruled that this act is permissible in cases of necessity.[10] Juridical opinions vary regarding the determination of the threshold of necessity and, consequently, the permissibility of autopsy.[11] Some, such as Lutfullah Safi Gulpayigani[12] and Imam Khomeini,[13] allow it only to save a Muslim's life, while others, like Sayyid Muhammad Sadiq Ruhani and Ishaq al-Fayyad have also permitted dissection for physician training and education.[14]

Reasons for the Prohibition of Dissecting the Body

Regarding the primary ruling (al-hukm al-awwali) on dissecting a Muslim body and the issuance of a fatwa prohibiting it, jurists have cited several narrations, including the following:[15]

  1. Narrations indicating the necessity of respecting the body of a Muslim.[16]
  2. Narrations that forbid mutilation (muthla), the severing of any part of the deceased's body, or its dismemberment.[17]
  3. Narrations stating that cutting a part of the body entails the payment of diya.[18]

Fatwas regarding the dissection of a non-Muslim body vary.[19] Some Shi'a jurists, such as Sayyid Muhammad Sadiq Ruhani and Muhammad Sanad, consider the dissection of a non-Muslim body—including a kafir harbi—to be forbidden, arguing that the narrations encompass both Muslims and non-Muslims.[20] Hossein-Ali Montazeri allows the dissection of kafir harbis but exercises caution regarding Ahl al-Dhimma.[21] Others, such as Sayyid Abu l-Qasim al-Kho'ei and Imam Khomeini, permit the dissection of any non-Muslim.[22]

Reasons for the Permissibility of Autopsy of a Muslim

Jurists have allowed dissecting a Muslim body in cases of necessity.[23] They cite the following reasons to determine the extent of necessity:

  • Narrations stating that dissecting a Muslim's body is permissible for the purpose of preserving and saving others, arguing that the prohibition applies only where it does not conflict with a stronger interest (maslaha).[24] An example is found in a narration concerning a pregnant woman who has died while the fetus in her womb remains alive; the instruction is to dissect the mother's body to remove the infant. Similarly, narrations instruct the dissection of a body if the deceased swallowed a valuable item, the loss of which would harm the heirs.[25] Citing these narrations, some jurists maintain the permissibility of autopsy to save the lives of others.[26]
  • Evidence indicating that saving a Muslim is obligatory and emphasizing the importance of preserving their life, noting that autopsy can facilitate this outcome. According to Muhammad Sadiq Ruhani, this reasoning can authorize not only educational autopsy but also criminal autopsy that leads to identifying a perpetrator and saving human lives. Other necessary objectives may also authorize the dissection of a deceased body.[27]
  • The necessity of preserving Islamic beliefs and culture from foreign influence. Muhammad Ishaq al-Fayyad believes that autopsy is a field which, if neglected in Islamic society, leads to scientific backwardness and, consequently, dependency on foreigners, facilitating the entry of misleading culture and thought into Muslim society. Therefore, he posits that for a Muslim who is seriously committed to the elevation of Islam, the treatment of Muslim patients, and the capability to analyze medical issues, learning the science of dissection is permissible or even obligatory.[28]

Overview of Some Fatwas

The fatwas of Shi'a jurists regarding the autopsy of a Muslim body differ:

  • According to Sayyid Muhammad Sadiq Ruhani where a stronger interest such as saving lives, criminal discovery, or medical advancement is involved, dissection is permissible. Furthermore, although diya is typically required for beheading a corpse, this ruling does not apply in these permissible cases, and diya is not necessary.[29]
  • Lutfullah Safi Gulpayigani permits the autopsy of a Muslim only if another Muslim's life is at risk and no non-Muslim body is available; otherwise, he does not permit it, even if the deceased left a will. He holds that an autopsy is not permissible under Shari'a judicial standards for identifying a criminal, and the accused must be released if the crime is not proven through legitimate and logical means.[30]
  • According to Hossein-Ali Montazeri, if a deceased Muslim left a will consenting to dissection, it is permissible; no permission from the guardians (awliy') is needed, and no diya is required. However, if there is no will, it is permissible only to save another Muslim's life and in the absence of a non-Muslim body.[31]
  • Nasir Makarim Shirazi considers the dissection of a Muslim permissible and sometimes obligatory under these conditions: 1. The purpose must be to learn and complete medical knowledge essential for saving Muslims, and this purpose cannot be achieved without dissection. 2. No non-Muslim body is available. 3. The procedure must be limited to the extent necessary.[32]
  • According to 'Ali Akbar Sayfi Mazandarani, autopsy is permissible based on rational grounds. Citing the rule of the necessity of respecting a Muslim corpse, he believes dissecting the body with the intention of insulting it is forbidden.[33]

Diya of Autopsy

If an autopsy is deemed haram, the payment of diya is mandatory; however, in cases where an autopsy is permissible, there is disagreement regarding the payment of diya.[34] Some jurists do not consider diya necessary when dissection is authorized.[35] Consequently, in jurisprudence, there is no instruction to pay diya regarding the dissection of a deceased mother's body to remove a living fetus.[36] According to Husayn-Ali Muntaziri, if a person made a will for dissection before death, the diya is waived.[37] Based on narrations and fatwas, the amount of diya for a human corpse is one hundred dinars—equal to the diya of a fetus before the soul is breathed into it. Thus, if an act is performed on the corpse that would have caused death were the person alive, the full one hundred dinars must be paid; other injuries are calculated proportionally based on the ratio of a living person's diya for that specific organ relative to one hundred dinars.[38]

Al-Shaykh al-Tusi, in the book al-Nihaya, citing a narration, holds that the diya paid for an autopsy must be spent on behalf of the deceased and is not transferred to heirs like inheritance or the diya of murder. In contrast, al-Sayyid al-Murtada and Ibn Idris al-Hilli consider this amount a fine belonging to the Bayt al-Mal.[39] Additionally, in one narration, this diya is considered the right of the Infallible Imam.[40]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ṭāhirī, "Tashrīḥ-i jasad az dīdgāh-i Islām", p. 21.
  2. ↑ Sayfī Māzandarānī, Ḥalaqāt-i fiqh-i faāl, vol. 3, p. 107; Sanad, Fiqh al-ṭibb wa l-taḍkhīm al-naqdī, p. 7.
  3. ↑ Sutūda, Aḥmadī, "Kālbud-shikāfī-yi jinā'ī; pardāzish-i fiqhī-ḥuqūqī", p. 102; Allāh-dādī & Colleagues, "Barrasī-yi 'ilmī, fiqhī-yi tashrīḥ-i jasad-i mayyit-i Musulmān", p. 17.
  4. ↑ Ibrāhīm-zāda, Rabbānī Bīrjandī, "Kālbud-shikāfī-yi jasad-i Musulmān az dīdgāh-i fuqahā-yi Shī'a", p. 131.
  5. ↑ Kirāmatī, "Tashrīḥ", p. 363.
  6. ↑ Kirāmatī, "Tashrīḥ", pp. 367-368.
  7. ↑ Kirāmatī, "Tashrīḥ", pp. 367-368.
  8. ↑ Kirāmatī, "Tashrīḥ", p. 369.
  9. ↑ Khalajī, "Nigarishī naw bar mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi ḥukm-i kālbud-shikāfī bar asās-i ārā'-i Imām Khomeinī", p. 108; Muntaẓirī, al-Aḥkām al-shar'iyya 'alā madhhab Ahl al-Bayt, p. 572; Khomeinī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, vol. 2, p. 624; Kho'eī, Munyat al-sā'il, p. 215.
  10. ↑ Qibla'ī Kho'eī, "Tashrīḥ", p. 343.
  11. ↑ See: Makārim Shīrāzī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 27; Ṣāfī Gulpāyigānī, Istiftā'āt-i pizishkī, pp. 55-57; Muntaẓirī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 73.
  12. ↑ Ṣāfī Gulpāyigānī, Istiftā'āt-i pizishkī, pp. 55-57.
  13. ↑ Khomeinī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, vol. 2, p. 624.
  14. ↑ Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 158; Fayyāḍ, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 216.
  15. ↑ See: Sanad, Fiqh al-ṭibb wa l-taḍkhīm al-naqdī, pp. 7-29.
  16. ↑ Sanad, Fiqh al-ṭibb wa l-taḍkhīm al-naqdī, p. 7; Ṣadūq, Man lā yaḥḍuruh al-faqīh, vol. 4, p. 157.
  17. ↑ 'Āmilī, Wasā'il al-Shī'a, vol. 29, p. 328; Ṭūsī, Tahdhīb al-aḥkām, vol. 10, p. 274.
  18. ↑ 'Āmilī, Wasā'il al-Shī'a, 1409 AH, vol. 29, p. 327.
  19. ↑ See: Khū'ī, Minhāj al-ṣāliḥīn, vol. 1, p. 426; Khomeinī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, vol. 2, p. 624; Muntaẓirī, al-Aḥkām al-shar'iyya 'alā madhhab Ahl al-Bayt (a), p. 572; Sanad, Fiqh al-ṭibb wa l-taḍkhīm al-naqdī, pp. 7-29; Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 155.
  20. ↑ Sanad, Fiqh al-ṭibb wa l-taḍkhīm al-naqdī, pp. 7-29; Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 155.
  21. ↑ Muntaẓirī, al-Aḥkām al-shar'iyya 'alā madhhab Ahl al-Bayt (a), p. 572.
  22. ↑ Kho'eī, Minhāj al-ṣāliḥīn, vol. 1, p. 426; Khomeinī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, vol. 2, p. 624.
  23. ↑ Ibrāhīm-zāda, Rabbānī Bīrjandī, "Kālbud-shikāfī-yi jasad-i Musulmān az dīdgāh-i fuqahā-yi Shī'a", p. 148.
  24. ↑ Ṭāhirī, "Tashrīḥ-i jasad az dīdgāh-i Islām", p. 25.
  25. ↑ Ṭāhirī, "Tashrīḥ-i jasad az dīdgāh-i Islām", p. 26.
  26. ↑ Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 116.
  27. ↑ Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 116.
  28. ↑ Fayyāḍ, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 216.
  29. ↑ Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 158.
  30. ↑ Ṣāfī Gulpāyigānī, Istiftā'āt-i pizishkī, pp. 55-57.
  31. ↑ Muntaẓirī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 73.
  32. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 27.
  33. ↑ Sayfī Māzandarānī, Mabānī al-fiqh al-faāl fī l-qawā'id al-fiqhiyya al-asāsiyya, vol. 1, pp. 167-175.
  34. ↑ Sutūda, Aḥmādī, "Kālbud-shikāfī-yi jinā'ī; pardāzish-i fiqhī-ḥuqūqī", p. 125.
  35. ↑ Muntaẓirī, al-Aḥkām al-shar'iyya 'alā madhhab Ahl al-Bayt, p. 572; Rūḥānī, al-Masā'il al-mustaḥdatha, p. 158; Makārim Shīrāzī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 30.
  36. ↑ Ṭāhirī, "Tashrīḥ-i jasad az dīdgāh-i Islām", p. 27.
  37. ↑ Muntaẓirī, Aḥkām-i pizishkī, p. 73.
  38. ↑ 'Āmilī, Wasā'il al-Shī'a, vol. 29, pp. 325-326; Ṭūsī, al-Nihāya, p. 779.
  39. ↑ al-Sarā'ir, vol. 3, p. 419.
  40. ↑ 'Āmilī, Wasā'il al-Shī'a, vol. 29, p. 327.

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