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Islamic sciences refers to disciplines that are somehow related to the knowledge of Islamic teachings and their creation or expansion took place in Islamic lands by the hands of Muslims. In its narrower sense, Islamic sciences only include disciplines that either originate from the main texts of the religion of Islam, namely the Qur'an and hadith, or are used for a better and deeper understanding of Islamic teachings.

Disciplines such as fiqh, kalam (theology), the collection of hadith sciences, exegesis (tafsir), and Qur'anic sciences are the most important branches of religious knowledge. Islamic sciences have been divided into intellectual and transmitted, practical and theoretical, and canonical (shar'i) and non-canonical (ghayr shar'i). Disciplines such as logic and Arabic literature and its branches are considered prerequisites for authentic Islamic sciences. Some writers do not consider philosophy and mysticism ('irfan) to be among the authentic Islamic sciences due to their imported nature or the specific method of these sciences.

The term Islamic sciences has been considered a conventional term that can be applied to various disciplines by changing the criterion and standard of being religious. Some criteria expand the circle of Islamic sciences and introduce basic and empirical sciences into the collection of religious knowledge, whereas other criteria restrict the circle of Islamic sciences to authentic Islamic sciences. In many scientific texts, a distinction is made between authentic Islamic sciences and other sciences that were nurtured and expanded by Islamic civilization, calling the latter the sciences of Muslims. Researchers have published numerous works on the history of Islamic sciences and the role of Shi'as in the emergence and expansion of these sciences.

Status and Importance

The term Islamic sciences refers to disciplines that are somehow related to the knowledge of Islamic teachings or were created or developed by Muslims.[1]

Islamic civilization is known by Islamic sciences, and Islamic sciences are considered the intellectual foundation of Islamic civilization.[2] In principle, the knowledge of religious teachings is achieved through disciplines called Islamic sciences.[3] Throughout the history of Muslims, numerous and abundant scientific centers were built for teaching Islamic sciences, and even mosques have always been places for teaching Islamic sciences.[4] Islamic seminaries (hawzas) have been established across the Islamic world for the education, research, development, and propagation of Islamic sciences.[5] And a large part of the written heritage of Muslims is dedicated to religious sciences,[6] just as scholars of Islamic sciences are considered among the most famous scientific figures of the Islamic world.[7]

Introduction of Authentic Islamic Sciences

The book of al-Sayyid Hasan al-Sadr named Ta'sis al-Shi'a li-'ulum al-Islam, which is about the history of Islamic disciplines and the role of Shi'as in the formation of these sciences.

Al-Sayyid Hasan al-Sadr in his book Ta'sis al-Shi'a li-'ulum al-Islam, which is about the role of the Shi'a in founding Islamic sciences, considered and introduced 14 sciences as Islamic.[8] In the first section of the book, he placed six sciences under Islamic literary sciences, which include grammar (nahw), morphology (sarf), lexicology (lugha), etc. He introduced three disciplines: history and sira, Maghazi l-Nabi (campaigns of the Prophet), rijal, and heresiology as historical sciences, and then reported the sciences of diraya, fiqh, and usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence). He also considered the disciplines related to the Qur'an to include the science of recitation ('ilm al-qira'a), meanings of the Qur'an (ma'ani l-Qur'an), unfamiliar words of the Qur'an (gharib al-Qur'an), metaphors of the Qur'an (majaz al-Qur'an), rulings of the Qur'an (ahkam al-Qur'an), and Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir al-Qur'an), and in the final two chapters, he introduced the two sciences of theology (kalam) and ethics (akhlaq) as Islamic sciences.[9] Ghulamhasan Muharrami, the author of the book Imaman-i Shi'a wa 'ulum-i Islami (The Shi'a Imams and Islamic Sciences), has also added the two sciences of philosophy and theoretical mysticism to the aforementioned disciplines.[10] Just as 'Ali Akbar Wilayati in the book Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islam (Islamic Culture and Civilization) has categorized seven sciences as Islamic sciences and has also mentioned the science of Sufism, mysticism, and chivalry (futuwwa) as Islamic sciences.[11]

Fathullahi in the book Mituduluzhi-yi 'ulum-i Qur'ani (Methodology of Qur'anic Sciences) divided religious studies into two main parts: general studies of religious research and Islamic studies (Islamology). Disciplines such as philosophy of religion, sociology of religion, psychology of religion, linguistics of religion, and history of religions are among the general studies. He then categorized Islamic studies into three branches: authentic Islamic sciences, instrumental sciences, and intruding sciences (dakhila). In his view, Qur'anic exegesis, the science of fiqh, kalam, Islamic ethics, hadith sciences, and Islamic mysticism are authentic Islamic sciences, whereas Qur'anic sciences, principles of jurisprudence, the science of diraya, and the science of rijal are placed among the instrumental sciences, and Islamic philosophy is also an intruding knowledge that entered the Islamic world from other cultures.[12] Template:Tree of Islamic Sciences

Criterion and Standard of the Religiousness of Sciences

Distinguishing between religious and non-religious sciences has been considered a conventional[13] and terminological[14] matter that can be done based on various criteria: utilizing religious sources, applying religious foundations, aligning with Islamic goals, or following Islamic rational and intuitive methods.[15]

Ahmad Husayn Sharifi, a researcher of Islamic philosophy, has collected eleven theories in this regard in the book "Mabani-yi 'ulum-i insani-yi Islami" (Foundations of Islamic Human Sciences). These theories encompass disciplines emphasized by Islam, sciences that explain the Book and the Sunna, sciences beneficial for the Islamic society, sciences belonging to Muslim scholars, sciences observing Islamic topics and issues, sciences documented by Islamic texts, sciences documented by Islamic sources, sciences observing the interpretation of the divine will, sciences documented by Islamic foundations, sciences derived from religious texts through an ijtihadi method, and sciences based on the Islamic research method.[16]

Comprehensive Criteria

Among the criteria proposed for the religiousness of knowledge, some are comprehensive criteria that bring all or most human sciences into the domain of Islamic sciences; disciplines emphasized by Islam, sciences beneficial for the Islamic society, sciences of Muslim scholars, sciences documented by Islamic sources, sciences observing the interpretation of the divine will, sciences documented by Islamic foundations, and sciences based on the Islamic research method fall into this group of criteria. These perspectives also include natural sciences and basic sciences[17] and it can be said that from this aspect, there is no difference between the Islamic, Christian, and Jewish religions, or secular and material views[18] and rather it can be said that all correct sciences are religious, and fundamentally the combination of "religious science" would be an explanatory combination.[19] The author of the methodology book has used the expression "being Islamic from the outside" regarding this criterion, because in this criterion, no attention is paid to the content of the knowledge such as subjects, issues, and proofs, and any affirmative relation with Islam is sufficient to describe the science as Islamic.[20]

Restricting Criteria

Some criteria for the Islamic nature of sciences stem from the internal content of the knowledge, and disciplines whose components have somehow been influenced by Islam and Islamic teachings can be called Islamic.[21] These criteria narrow the scope of Islamic sciences;

  • Disciplines that explain the Book and the Sunna.[22] Based on this, only the disciplines of Qur'anic exegesis, hadith commentary, biography of the Prophet (s), Islamic theology, Islamic ethics, fiqh, and a part of the principles of jurisprudence are considered Islamic sciences. Mustafa Malakiyan holds such a view.[23]
  • Sciences observing Islamic topics and issues.[24] Therefore, if economics addresses issues such as khums and zakat, and psychology investigates topics such as carnal desires, sincerity, and piety (taqwa), they will be Islamic disciplines.[25]
  • Sciences documented by Islamic texts.[26] According to this theory, medicine and natural sciences, if they use religious texts, will also be among the Islamic sciences; just as Jawadi Amuli has explicitly stated this point in the book Shari'at dar ayina-yi ma'rifat.[27]
  • Sciences derived from religious texts through an ijtihadi method.[28] Based on the analysis provided by 'Ali 'Abidi Shahrudi, religious science is a knowledge that has been discovered from religious texts through the mechanism of ijtihad.[29] According to his view, non-religious science only seeks to solve problems and achieve its own goals. However, religious science, in addition to this, helps to improve human's position in the world and guides them toward higher levels of growth.[30]

Division Based on the Domain of Religion

Sulayman Khakban, in his article, believes that determining the scope of Islamic sciences depends on determining the scope and domain of religion. Those who consider the scope of religion to be minimal and only observing spiritual and otherworldly affairs define Islamic sciences much more restrictively than those who have a moderate or maximal theory about the scope of religion and consider religion to observe worldly affairs as well.[31] According to him, with a minimal perspective, disciplines such as Islamic medicine, Islamic economics, Islamic sociology, and even parts of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and law fall outside the circle of Islamic sciences.[32]

Categorization of Islamic Sciences

Islamic sciences or canonical sciences have been categorized based on various criteria.

Primary Disciplines and Prerequisites

According to two definitions provided by Murtada Mutahhari, a Shi'a Islamologist, a number of Islamic sciences discuss the roots (usul) or branches (furu') of Islam, or the roots and branches of Islam are proven relying on them, such as the science of recitation ('ilm al-qira'a), exegesis, hadith science, transmitted theology (kalam naqli), fiqh, and transmitted ethics.[33] And another category of disciplines that are introductions and prerequisites for the first two groups. Such as Arabic literature, rational theology, rational ethics, divine wisdom, logic, principles of jurisprudence, rijal, and diraya.[34]

Sulayman Khakban, a philosophy researcher, has also categorized a part of the disciplines related to religion in such a way that some of these disciplines are a priori extra-religious sciences observing the prerequisites for belief in religion, such as philosophy and language,[35] and others are sciences based purely and genuinely on the Book and the Sunna, formed in response to questions whose answers and proofs exist entirely within the text of revelatory teachings; such as eschatology (qiyamat-shinasi), originology (mabda'-shinasi), and pneumatology (ruh-shinasi).[36]

Theoretical and Practical Disciplines

In one classification, sciences have been divided into theoretical and practical sciences; theoretical sciences or wisdom include divine science or philosophy, arithmetic, and natural science, and practical wisdom is also divided into the science of ethics, the science of household management (tadbir-i manzil), and the science of politics.[37]

Canonical and Non-Canonical Disciplines

The sciences of Muslims have also been divided into canonical (shar'i) and non-canonical (ghayr shar'i), and canonical sciences are sciences that have been transmitted from the Prophet (s) and the Imams.[38] Aldo Mieli, a researcher of the history of sciences, considers specific Islamic sciences to only be sciences derived from the Qur'an and hadith, observing Islamic divine law and wisdom, and the like.[39]

Intellectual Sciences and Transmitted Sciences

Division into intellectual sciences and transmitted sciences is also a method of classification in sciences; intellectual sciences encompass disciplines such as wisdom, theology, and philosophy[40] and transmitted sciences include canonical disciplines[41] and some other disciplines like literature and history.[42] The most famous transmitted disciplines of Muslims are Arabic literature and its branches such as grammar (nahw), morphology (sarf), semantics (ma'ani), rhetoric (bayan), figures of speech (badi'), and lexicology (lugha), the science of recitation, exegesis, hadith, rijal, diraya, principles of jurisprudence, fiqh, history, genealogy (ansab), and prosody ('arud). According to 'Allama Tabataba'i, a Shi'a exegete and philosopher, except for the three sciences of history, genealogy, and prosody, the main factor in the emergence of the other transmitted disciplines is the Qur'an.[43]

Difference Between Islamic Sciences and the Sciences of Muslims

Murtada Mutahhari, in one of his four definitions of Islamic sciences, refers to disciplines that have grown in Islamic culture and society, although they may not be wajib (obligatory) or may even be haram (forbidden) from a canonical perspective. Mutahhari gives astrological astronomy and mathematical astronomy as examples of such disciplines.[44] He has also included disciplines such as medicine, politics, various sciences and techniques, and many natural and mathematical sciences within Islamic sciences, explaining that because knowing these is obligatory for the preservation and elevation of the Islamic society, they can be considered among Islamic sciences.[45] Aldo Mieli, a researcher of the history of science, calls this part of the sciences Arabic sciences.[46]

Osman Bakar, a researcher of the history of science, in the book Tarikh wa falsafa-yi 'ulum-i Islami (History and Philosophy of Islamic Sciences), considers Islamic sciences to be disciplines that flourished in Islamic culture and civilization after the third century AH (ninth century CE): such as mathematical and natural sciences, and psychology ('ilm al-nafs).[47] In his opinion, calling these sciences Islamic is because they are all connected with fundamental Islamic teachings such as monotheism.[48]

Ali Asghar Haqi-Dar, author of articles on the philosophy of Islamic sciences, believes that intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, logic, and rational ethics, as well as transmitted disciplines such as Arabic literature, cannot be considered Islamic sciences; rather, these disciplines are located within the domain of Islamic culture.[49] According to him, modern sciences such as sociology and psychology, which are used by Muslims based on the needs of society, should be considered among Islamic obligations. However, from the perspective that these disciplines have taken on a religious color among Muslims, are expressed in religious terminology, and serve Muslims, they can loosely be considered Islamic sciences.[50]

The Islamic Nature of Philosophy and Mysticism

Some writers do not consider the discipline of Islamic philosophy to be among Islamic sciences because it entered the Islamic world from Greece, and Muslims philosophized on the same topics[51] without having any particular innovation,[52] and also because its method is purely rational and it does not use religious sources like the Qur'an and hadith.[53] Ja'far Sayyidan, one of the theologians following the School of Tafkik, says that philosophy and mysticism have sometimes reached conclusions that are contrary to Islamic teachings, and therefore, the expression "Islamic philosophy and mysticism" cannot be used;[54] just as Mustafa Malakiyan believes that philosophy fundamentally cannot be religious.[55]

Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi (d. 1399 SH / 2021) responded to this objection by saying that the existence of the slightest connection between philosophy and Islam is sufficient for the accuracy of the title "Islamic philosophy"; just as some of the issues of Islamic philosophy stem from Islamic teachings, and some of them serve to prove Islamic teachings.[56] Some, to resolve the incompatibility of the combination "Islamic philosophy," have also said that Islam has been influential in Islamic philosophy in areas such as directing issues, proposing problems, inventing arguments, and eliminating mistakes, without compromising the rational nature of philosophy.[57]

Researches and Researchers of the History of Islamic Sciences

Emblem of the International Congress on the Role of the Shi'a in the Emergence and Expansion of Islamic Sciences, 1397 SH (2018).

Numerous researches have been conducted on Islamic sciences, their classification, and history.[58] One of the oldest studies on the classification of Islamic sciences is reported in the book Ihsa' al-'ulum by the Shi'a philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi.[59] Al-Sayyid Hasan al-Sadr (d. 1354 AH / 1935), by writing the book Ta'sis al-Shi'a li-'ulum al-Islam, is considered one of the most important researchers of the history of Islamic science.[60] Ghulamhasan Muharrami, a researcher of the history of Shi'ism, has also addressed the topic of Islamic disciplines and their history in the book Imaman-i Shi'a wa 'ulum-i Islami.[61] The International Congress on the Role of the Shi'a in the Emergence and Expansion of Islamic Sciences was held in Ordibehesht 1397 SH (May 2018) under the supervision of Nasir Makarim Shirazi, a Shi'a marja' (religious authority). This congress has published its collection of articles in the form of a 17-volume book and a computer disk.[62]

'Ali Akbar Wilayati, a researcher of Islamic history and civilization, in his two-volume book Naqsh-i Shi'a dar farhang wa tamaddun-i Islam wa Iran (The Role of the Shi'a in the Culture and Civilization of Islam and Iran), has tried to compile the history of Islamic sciences and the role of the Shi'a in their emergence and expansion.[63] The subject of the book Science and Civilization in Islam, written by the Iranian Shi'a philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr, is also the sciences of Muslims, which Ahmad Aram has translated into Persian.[64] Zayn al-'Abidin Qurbani has also addressed the topic of Islamic sciences in the book Tarikh-i farhang wa tamaddun-i Islami (History of Islamic Culture and Civilization).[65]

See Also

Notes

  1. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Shīʿa dar Islām, 1378 SH, p. 98.
  2. ↑ Mahdī-nizhād, "Jāygāh wa naqsh-i ḥawza-yi ʿilmiyya dar tamaddun-sāzī-yi Islāmī dar dawra-yi muʿāṣir", p. 31.
  3. ↑ Ḥaqdār, "Falsafa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", p. 101.
  4. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 33.
  5. ↑ Mahdī-nizhād, "Jāygāh wa naqsh-i ḥawza-yi ʿilmiyya dar tamaddun-sāzī-yi Islāmī dar dawra-yi muʿāṣir", p. 32.
  6. ↑ Nīlsāz, "Muqaddima-yi dūktūr Nuṣrat Nīlsāz", pp. 14-15.
  7. ↑ See: Qummī, Mashāhīr-i dānishmandān-i Islām, 1350 SH, entire book.
  8. ↑ Muḥarramī, Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1397 SH, p. 49.
  9. ↑ al-Ṣadr, Taʾsīs al-Shīʿa li-ʿulūm al-Islām, 1375 SH, pp. 421-424.
  10. ↑ Muḥarramī, Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1397 SH, pp. 8-9.
  11. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 89.
  12. ↑ Fatḥullāhī, Mituduluzhī-yi ʿulūm-i Qurʾānī, 1388 SH, p. 156.
  13. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 213.
  14. ↑ Muṭahharī, Dih guftār, 1380 SH, p. 171.
  15. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 179.
  16. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 8.
  17. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 218.
  18. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 218.
  19. ↑ Jawādī Āmulī, Manzilat-i ʿaql dar hindisa-yi maʿrifat-i dīnī, 1398 SH, pp. 140-144; Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, pp. 176, 183, 188, 197, 205, 212.
  20. ↑ Fatḥullāhī, Mituduluzhī-yi ʿulūm-i Qurʾānī, 1388 SH, p. 114.
  21. ↑ Fatḥullāhī, Mituduluzhī-yi ʿulūm-i Qurʾānī, 1388 SH, p. 115.
  22. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 178.
  23. ↑ Malakiyān, Rāhī bi rahāyī, 1381 SH, p. 58.
  24. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 189.
  25. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 189.
  26. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 190.
  27. ↑ Jawādī Āmulī, Sharīʿat dar āyīna-yi maʿrifat, 1372 SH, pp. 79-82.
  28. ↑ Sharīfī, Mabānī-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1394 SH, p. 209.
  29. ↑ ʿĀbidī Shāhrūdī, Sanjish wa iktishāf, 1394 SH, p. 333.
  30. ↑ ʿĀbidī Shāhrūdī, Sanjish wa iktishāf, 1394 SH, pp. 333-334; Khusrawpanāh, Dar justujū-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, 1393 SH, vol. 1, p. 261.
  31. ↑ Khākbān, "Darāmadī bar chīstī, charāyī wa chigūnagī-yi tawsīʿa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", pp. 17-18.
  32. ↑ Khākbān, "Darāmadī bar chīstī, charāyī wa chigūnagī-yi tawsīʿa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", p. 18.
  33. ↑ Muṭahharī, Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1402 SH, vol. 1, p. 13.
  34. ↑ Muṭahharī, Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1402 SH, vol. 1, p. 14.
  35. ↑ Khākbān, "Darāmadī bar chīstī, charāyī wa chigūnagī-yi tawsīʿa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", pp. 20-21.
  36. ↑ Khākbān, "Darāmadī bar chīstī, charāyī wa chigūnagī-yi tawsīʿa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", p. 21.
  37. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 37.
  38. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 38.
  39. ↑ Mieli, ʿUlūm-i Islāmī wa naqsh-i ān dar taḥawwul-i ʿilmī-yi jahān, 1371 SH, p. 171.
  40. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 38.
  41. ↑ Wilāyatī, Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī, 1386 SH, p. 38.
  42. ↑ Khusrawpanāh, Rawish-shināsī-yi ʿulūm-i ijtimāʿī, 1394 SH, p. 44.
  43. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Shīʿa dar Islām, 1378 SH, p. 98.
  44. ↑ Muṭahharī, Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1402 SH, vol. 1, p. 16.
  45. ↑ Muṭahharī, Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1402 SH, vol. 1, p. 16.
  46. ↑ Mieli, ʿUlūm-i Islāmī wa naqsh-i ān dar taḥawwul-i ʿilmī-yi jahān, 1371 SH, p. 169.
  47. ↑ Bakār, Tārīkh wa falsafa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1387 SH, p. 9.
  48. ↑ Bakār, Tārīkh wa falsafa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1387 SH, p. 9.
  49. ↑ Ḥaqdār, "Falsafa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", pp. 111-112.
  50. ↑ Ḥaqdār, "Falsafa-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī", pp. 111-112.
  51. ↑ Malakiyān, "Falsafa-yi Islāmī: hastī wa chīstī", pp. 137-138.
  52. ↑ Abū Rayyān, "Chūn wa charā-hā-yi falsafa-yi Islāmī", p. 191.
  53. ↑ ʿUbūdiyyat, "Āyā falsafa-yi Islāmī dārīm?", 1382 SH, pp. 30-31.
  54. ↑ Sayyidān, "Falsafa-yi Islāmī: hastī wa chīstī", p. 35.
  55. ↑ Malakiyān, "Falsafa-yi Islāmī: hastī wa chīstī", p. 118.
  56. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, "Falsafa-yi Islāmī; mīz-gird-i falsafa-shināsī 3", 1383 SH, p. 13.
  57. ↑ ʿUbūdiyyat, "Āyā falsafa-yi Islāmī dārīm?", 1382 SH, pp. 32-33.
  58. ↑ Bakār, Ṭabaqa-bandī-yi ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1381 SH, p. 15.
  59. ↑ Naṣr, ʿIlm wa tamaddun dar Islām, 1350 SH, p. 46.
  60. ↑ Muḥarramī, Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1397 SH, p. 49.
  61. ↑ Shīʿa wa ʿulūm-i Islāmī Iran Book and Literature House website.
  62. ↑ Muʿarrifī-yi majmūʿa-yi 17 jildī-yi Naqsh-i Shīʿa dar gustarish-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī.
  63. ↑ Naqsh-i Shīʿa dar farhang wa tamaddun-i Islām wa Īrān, Iran Book and Literature House website.
  64. ↑ ʿIlm wa tamaddun dar Islām Iran Book and Literature House website.
  65. ↑ farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī in the Iran Book and Literature House website.

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  • ʿUbūdiyyat, ʿAbd al-Rasūl. "Āyā falsafa-yi Islāmī dārīm?". Maʿrifat-i Falsafī, no. 1, 1382 SH.
  • ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. Shīʿa dar Islām. Qom: Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī, 1378 SH.
  • Fatḥullāhī, Ibrāhīm. Mituduluzhī-yi ʿulūm-i Qurʾānī. Tehran: Dānishgāh-i Imām Ṣādiq (a), 1388 SH.
  • Qummī, ʿAbbās. Mashāhīr-i dānishmandān-i Islām. Translated by Muḥammad Jawād Najafī from the book al-Kunā wa l-alqāb. Tehran: Kitābfurūshī-yi Islāmiyya, 1350 SH.
  • Muḥarramī, Ghulāmḥasan. Imāmān-i Shīʿa wa ʿulūm-i Islāmī. Tehran: Pazhūhishgāh-i Farhang wa Andīsha-yi Islāmī, 1397 SH.
  • Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī et al. "Falsafa-yi Islāmī; mīz-gird-i falsafa-shināsī 3". Maʿrifat-i Falsafī, no. 3, 1383 SH.
  • Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī. Rābiṭa-yi ʿilm wa dīn. Qom: Muʾassasa-yi Āmūzishī wa Pazhūhishī-yi Imām Khumaynī, 1392 SH.
  • Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā. Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, vol. 1 (Mantiq, Falsafa). Tehran: Ṣadrā, 1402 SH.
  • Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā. Dih guftār. Tehran: Ṣadrā, 1380 SH.
  • Malakiyān, Muṣṭafā. Rāhī bi rahāyī. Tehran: Nigāh-i Muʿāṣir, 1381 SH.
  • Malakiyān, Muṣṭafā. "Falsafa-yi Islāmī, hastī wa chīstī". Faṣlnāma-yi Naqd wa Naẓar, nos. 41-42, spring and summer 1385 SH.
  • Mahdī-nizhād, Sayyid Riḍā. "Jāygāh wa naqsh-i ḥawza-yi ʿilmiyya dar tamaddun-sāzī-yi Islāmī dar dawra-yi muʿāṣir". Pazhūhish-nāma-yi ʿulūm-i insānī-yi Islāmī, no. 17, spring and summer 1401 SH.
  • Mieli, Aldo. ʿUlūm-i Islāmī wa naqsh-i ān dar taḥawwul-i ʿilmī-yi jahān. Translated by Muḥammad Riḍā Shujāʿ-Nūrī and Asad Allāh ʿAlawī. Mashhad: Bunyād-i Pazhūhish-hā-yi Islāmī, 1371 SH.
  • Naṣr, Sayyid Ḥusayn. ʿIlm wa tamaddun dar Islām. Translated by Aḥmad Ārām. Tehran: Nashr-i Andīsha, 1350 SH.
  • Nīlsāz, Nuṣrat. "Muqaddima-yi Dūktūr Nuṣrat Nīlsāz". In Mīrāth-i maktūb-i Shīʿa dar panj qarn-i nukhust, written by Abu l-Faḍl Rajāyī-Fard. Tehran: Nashr-i Nigāh-i Muʿāṣir, 1399 SH.
  • Wilāyatī, ʿAlī Akbar. Farhang wa tamaddun-i Islāmī. Tehran: Nashr-i Maʿārif, 1386 SH.
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