Sirah Studies is regarded as a non-independent and interdisciplinary field. Within it, by seeking aid from certain Islamic disciplines such as history, Hadith, and Theology (Kalam), the implication and reliability of reports concerning the Sirah are examined using analytical and critical methods. Attention to research on the Sirah has been significant among Muslims, both in Islamic countries and in Western countries and their academic traditions. Furthermore, Sirah Studies is counted as a branch of the extensive research conducted by non-Muslim Islamologists.
The foundations of Prophetic Sirah studies among Muslims are considered to have formed with the emergence of an analytical and critical approach influenced by non-Muslim research; an approach initially associated with the translation of their works in the field of Sirah Studies. For example, the Persian translation of the book *Mahomet and His Successors* (published 1851) regarding the Sirah of the Prophet (s) is noted as one of the first works in this field. Other works in this area include Al-Sahih min sirat al-Nabi al-a'zam by Ja'far Murtada Amili (d. 1441 AH) and *Sirah-yi Rasul-i Khuda* (from the collection *Political History of Islam*) written by Rasul Jafarian.
The background of Prophetic Sirah studies among non-Muslims and Orientalists is traced back to the Middle Ages and polemical works against the Prophet (s) and his prophethood. It is said that after the Middle Ages, attention to the Sirah of the Prophet (s) increased with various academic approaches, and the writing of the first works with this approach began with a book by Gustav Weil (d. 1889), a German Islamologist, in 1843. Other works in this field include *Muhammad* by Michael Cook and *Muhammad at Mecca* by William Montgomery Watt.
New writings regarding the Sirah studies of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) among Muslims, similar to the Prophetic Sirah, were written in traditional formats and non-critically until familiarity with non-Muslim research was established. Post-this period, works were largely written under the influence of Western analytical and critical historiography. The book *Al-Imam Ali b. Abi Talib* by Abd al-Fattah Abd al-Maqsud and Pas az panjah sal (After Fifty Years) by Seyyed Jafar Shahidi are counted among these works.
Among non-Muslims in the field of Ahl al-Bayt (a) Sirah studies, the first efforts to present a comprehensive work are indicated in the first decade of the 20th century in the book *Fatima and the Daughters of Muhammad* (published 1912). Among their other works in this field, books such as *The Succession to Muhammad* by Wilferd Madelung, *Die Richtungen der islamischen Koranauslegung* (Trends in Islamic Quranic Exegesis) by Ignác Goldziher, and entries on the Imams (a) in various encyclopedic sources have been mentioned.
The majority of criticisms leveled in the field of Sirah Studies have been directed at non-Muslim Sirah researchers: criticisms such as materialist interpretations of the spiritual truths of the Prophetic Sirah and lack of attention to the approaches and differences of various historical sources related to the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).
Sirah Studies is considered a genre of Islamic Studies and Shia Studies wherein the Sirah of the Prophet (s) and other Infallibles (a) are researched in an interdisciplinary manner.[1] Accordingly, it is said that Sirah Studies is not an independent discipline, but an interdisciplinary branch that examines the implication and reliability of reports using analytical and critical methods, aided by Islamic disciplines such as history, Hadith, and Islamic Theology.[2]
According to Morteza Kariminia, a Sirah scholar, attention to research in Sirah has been significant among Muslims, whether in Islamic countries or in Western countries and their academic traditions.[3] Furthermore, Sirah Studies is counted as a branch of the extensive research of non-Muslim Islamologists.[4]
According to some researchers, in Iran after the Islamic Revolution, due to the necessities of religious governance, the attention of religious and academic institutions to Sirah Studies has faced extensive support.[5] A manifestation of this attention is shown in the publication of Sirah-related works in the Seminary and University, efforts to translate the works of Muslim and non-Muslim Sirah scholars, and the publication of specialized Sirah journals.[6]
Prophetic Sirah Studies: Backgrounds and First Examples
In some sources, the backgrounds and first examples of Prophetic Sirah studies among Muslims and non-Muslims have been formulated and reported as follows:
Among Muslims
According to Rasul Jafarian, a researcher of Islamic history, before Muslims became familiar with the Western tradition of Islamic studies, writings about the Prophetic Sirah were done in traditional formats; writings whose goal was to supply the demands of the common people in preserving religious rituals.[7] In his view, these writings were written non-critically and repetitively due to the strength of popular demand and the sanctification of the content.[8]
After this period, among Sunnis, early works with a Sirah Studies approach are shown in translations of works by Western Sirah scholars; works such as *The Life of Mahomet* by the French Sirah scholar Émile Dermenghem (published 1929), which was translated into Arabic and published in Egypt in 1945.[9] Among authored works among Sunnis, the book *Muhammad Rasul Allah* by Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. 1354 AH), an Egyptian religious modernist, is mentioned.[10]
Among early Shi'a works in the field of translation, Jafarian lists the first book translated into Persian as *Mahomet and His Successors* (published 1851) written by Washington Irving (d. 1859), the American Orientalist, which is a book about the Sirah of the Prophet (s).[11] This book was translated and published by Mirza Ibrahim Khan Shirazi in 1275 AH (1858).[12]
In the field of authored works among Shi'as, research articles in the religious press of Iran in the 1940s and 1950s (1320s and 1330s Sh) regarding the Sirah of the Prophet (s) have been noted,[13] an example of which are the serial articles by Muhammad Ali Khalili titled "Muhammad in the View of Others" in the journal *Ayin-e Islam*.[14] Another example is considered to be the collection of articles *Muhammad Khatam Payambaran*, which was published at Husseiniyeh Ershad on the occasion of the fifteenth century of the Hijra with an innovative look at the Prophet (s).[15] According to Jafarian, this book was a pioneering work in its subject in Iran of that day (1347 Sh/1968).[16]
Bust of Aloys Sprenger (d. 1893), Austrian Sirah scholar
Among Non-Muslims
The history of Sirah Studies among non-Muslims and Orientalists is shown in the Middle Ages and polemical works against the Prophet (s) and his prophethood; works like the Toledo Collection (Corpus Cluniacense) in which attempts were made to deny the truthfulness of the Messenger of God's (s) prophethood and the divine nature of the Quran.[17]
According to some researchers, although the research sources of medieval Orientalists regarding the Prophetic Sirah were taken from original Islamic sources, the transmitters (non-Muslims living in Islamic lands) were not concerned with accuracy in conveying the content; rather, they conversely strove to present a negative image of the Prophet (s).[18] Based on this, it is said that non-Muslim Sirah studies in the Middle Ages were based on this erroneous and fabricated information and had a polemical approach aimed at invalidating the truth of Islam.[19]
According to Kariminia, after the Middle Ages, attention to the Sirah of the Prophet (s) increased with an academic approach, and the first works with this approach were written in this period.[20] According to Harald Motzki (d. 2019), a German Islamologist, the first investigative Sirah was published by Gustav Weil (d. 1889), a German Islamologist, in 1843, which, in addition to the Quran, was based on a number of later Islamic sources.[21]
According to some researchers, in this period, when the primary sources of the Messenger of God's (s) Sirah were not yet available to non-Muslim Sirah researchers, other works were written with the prevailing approach of presenting a comprehensive biography of the Prophet (s);[22] including the book *The Life and Doctrine of Mohammad* (published 1861-1865) by Aloys Sprenger (d. 1893) and *The Life of Mahomet* (published 1861) by William Muir (d. 1905).[23]
According to some sources, in the final decade of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, with the critical edition and publication of the four main sources of Sirah (Maghazi of Waqidi, Sirah of Ibn Hisham, Tabaqat of Ibn Sa'd, and History of Tabari), non-Muslim Sirah writing relying on these sources alongside the Quran and the Sihah Sitta entered a new era of research into the Prophetic Sirah.[24]
Ahl al-Bayt Sirah Studies: Backgrounds and First Examples
In some sources, information is presented regarding different approaches and early examples of Ahl al-Bayt (a) Sirah studies among Muslims and non-Muslims:
Among Muslims
According to Jafarian, new writings with a Sirah Studies approach regarding the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) among Muslims, like the Prophetic Sirah, were written in traditional formats and non-critically until familiarity with Western research was established.[25] According to him, after this period, works were written with a new approach to answer new social and political challenges, relying on the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).[26]
Jafarian considers the approach of these works to be presenting the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) as a model of good governance;[27] works such as articles in Iranian religious journals in the 1940s and 1950s (1320s and 1330s Sh), like "The Justice of Ali (a)",[28] "The Lesson Hussein b. Ali (a) Taught Human Society",[29] and "Teachings of Imam Hasan (a)".[30]
Among Non-Muslims
According to some researchers, unlike Prophetic Sirah studies, Sirah studies of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) among non-Muslims, following Shia Studies, was not part of the main research topics for a long time, even until the mid-20th century.[31] As stated by Etan Kohlberg, a Jewish scholar of Shi'ism, in the first volume of the *Index Islamicus* which included Islamological articles from 1906 to 1955, out of a total of 824 pages, only two pages were dedicated to titles of articles written in the field of Twelver Shi'ism.[32]
Hayat-e Fikri va Siyasi-ye Imaman-e Shia written by Rasul Jafarian
In this context, the first efforts to present a comprehensive work on Shi'ism, centering on the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a), are reported in the first decade of the 20th century: Henri Lammens (d. 1937), a Belgian Orientalist, in the book *Fatima and the Daughters of Muhammad* (published 1912), addressed the narrative of the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) with a negative perspective.[33]
Among other early works in this field, the book *The Shi'ite Religion* by Dwight Donaldson (d. 1976), an American scholar of Shi'ism and Christian missionary, is mentioned.[34] It is said that Donaldson introduced the Shia Imams (a) in this book and devoted a separate chapter to each of them.[35]
It is said that from the second half of the 20th century, with the prevalence of scientific methods in Islamic Studies and the clarification of the harms of these studies and efforts to compensate for them, Shia Studies and consequently studies regarding the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) flourished more.[36] This situation reached its peak with the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the turning of research centers' attention towards Shi'ism.[37]
However, it is said that in a general view of Islamology among non-Muslims, the number of those who have works in the field of the Sirah of the Infallible Imams (a) is not very large compared to the number of Orientalists in various fields of Islamology.[38]
Prophetic Sirah Studies: Types and Examples
In some sources, the types and examples of Prophetic Sirah studies among Muslims and non-Muslims have been examined and reported:
Among Muslims
Considering the various contexts of the emergence of Prophetic Sirah studies among Muslims, their works in this field have been formulated and reported as follows:[39]
Works responding to the doubts of Western Sirah scholars; including the book *Difa' 'an al-'Aqida wa al-Shari'a didda Mata'in al-Mustashriqin* by Muhammad al-Ghazali, in which he critiqued the views of Ignác Goldziher, including those regarding the Prophetic Sirah.[41] Also the book *Mustashriqan va Payambar-e A'zam* by Hossein Abd al-Mohammadi, wherein the views of Orientalists regarding the Prophetic Sirah are critiqued.[42]
Translation and publication of laudatory remarks by non-Muslims regarding the Prophet (s) to attract new generations of Muslims influenced by Western culture back to Islam; including the book *Muhammad Rasul Allah (Kitab al-Huda)* by Mirza Hadi Nouri Mazandarani, published in 1313 and 1314 Sh.[45] According to Jafarian, this book contains the opinions of 49 Orientalists regarding the Prophet (s).[46]
Among Non-Muslims
Orientalist research, from the first quarter of the 20th century onwards, regarding the general validity of historical texts and Hadiths of early Islam, especially regarding the Sirah of the Messenger of God (s), is characterized as follows.[47] Some researchers have shown three basic approaches in the history of non-Muslim Sirah studies:
**Optimistic Approach:** To existing Sirah sources among Muslims without concern regarding their validity, based on the fact that their compilation dates back to two or three centuries after the demise of the Messenger of God (s).[48]
**Skeptical Approach:** Towards the authenticity of Sirah sources, which expanded after the publication of the second part of *Muhammedanische Studien* by Ignác Goldziher in 1890.[49] The publication of this book led to the emergence of Orientalists who believed that almost all narrations related to the Sirah were fabricated; figures such as Leone Caetani (d. 1935), Henri Lammens (d. 1937), Joseph Schacht (d. 1969) in *The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence*, John Wansbrough (d. 2020) in *Quranic Studies*, Michael Cook in *Muhammad*, and Patricia Crone (d. 2015) in *Hagarism*.[50]
**Middle Approach:** Based on the belief in the uncertain or dubious value of Sirah sources and an effort to write the Sirah relying on a critical view.[51] This approach is shown in works such as *Muhammad at Mecca* (published 1953) and *Muhammad at Medina* (published 1956) by William Montgomery Watt, *Mohammed und der Koran* by Rudi Paret (d. 1983), and *Muhammad* by Maxime Rodinson (d. 2004).[52]
Ahl al-Bayt Sirah Studies: Types and Examples
In some sources, the types and examples of Ahl al-Bayt (a) Sirah studies among Muslims and non-Muslims have been examined and reported:
Among Muslims
In the field of the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) among Muslims, like Prophetic Sirah studies, the types of Sirah studies and works related to them have been formulated and reported as follows:[53]
Writings responding to the doubts of Western Sirah scholars; including the book *Tasvir-e Imaman-e Shia dar Da'irat al-Ma'arif-e Eslam* (Translation and Critique) by Mahmoud Taghizadeh Davari[57] and numerous articles written in refutation of some of their opinions regarding the Sirah of the Imams (a).[58]
*Mohammed und der Koran* written by Rudi Paret (d. 1983)
Among Non-Muslims
Some researchers, paying attention to the works of non-Muslim Shi'a scholars and Muslim Sirah scholars researching under their scientific tradition, have formulated their Sirah-related works in the field of the Sirah of the Shia Imams (a) as follows:[61]
Works in which Imamate, as the most important doctrine distinguishing Shi'ism from other sects, is examined, and wherein the Sirah of the Imams (a) is examined as part of the theory of Imamate; including: *Shi'a Islam: From Religion to Revolution* by Heinz Halm, *A History of Shi'i Islam* by Farhad Daftary, *The Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam* by S. Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019), *An Introduction to Shi'i Islam* by Moojan Momen, and *The Origins of the Shi'a* by Najam Haider.[67]
Sources regarding the event of Ashura which, due to its importance in Islamic history, narrate the Sirah of Imam al-Husayn (a);[68] including numerous works by I. K. A. Howard (d. 2013) regarding Ashura, and the works of Khalid Sindawi, a Jewish scholar of Shi'ism.[69]
*Crisis and Consolidation* (Persian translation: Nass va Tafsir) by Hossein Modarressi Tabataba'i Sectarian sources regarding various Shia sects from Ismailis and Zaydis to Ghulāt, in which the Sirah of the Imams (a) is addressed while explaining the origin and orientation of these sects towards them; including parts of *Vorlesungen über den Islam* (published 1910) by Goldziher, *The Assassins* by Bernard Lewis (d. 2018), various works by Rudolf Strothmann (d. 1960) regarding Zaydis, numerous works by Farhad Daftary regarding Ismailis, and *Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects* (published 1982) by Matti Moosa.[74]
Entries on the Ahl al-Bayt (a) in encyclopedic sources: such as entries "Zayn al-Abidin", "Muhammad al-Bakir" and "Musa al-Kazim" by Kohlberg in the *Encyclopaedia of Islam* and the entry "Ali b. Abi Talib" by him in *Encyclopædia Iranica*; also, entries "Djawad, Muhammad b. Ali" and "al-Mahdi" by Madelung in the *Encyclopaedia of Islam* and entries "Hasan b. Ali", "Hosayn b. Ali", "Baqer, Abu Jafar Mohammad", "Ali al-Reza" and "Ali al-Hadi" by him in *Encyclopædia Iranica*.[75]
Report of Criticisms
The majority of criticisms leveled in the field of Sirah Studies have been directed at non-Muslim Sirah studies regarding the Prophetic Sirah and the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a):[76]
Regarding Prophetic Sirah Studies
Criticisms have been raised by some researchers against works of Prophetic Sirah studies among non-Muslim scholars, including:[77]
**Little familiarity with Arabic and original Sirah sources:** It is said that their familiarity with Arabic, as the primary language of Sirah sources, was minimal until 1879, and their sources were generally secondary sources.[78] Also, their familiarity with primary Sirah sources was generally indirect until the beginning of the 20th century.[79]
**Religious Prejudices:** Orientalists, especially the early ones, were mostly prejudiced regarding their own religious beliefs, and their efforts to understand the Prophetic Sirah were generally for writing refutations of the Prophet's (s) prophethood.[80]
**Political rivalry between Islam and Christianity:** These rivalries are shown in various historical periods, including the rise of Islam coinciding with the era of Roman Empire power, the Crusades, the era of Ottoman Turkish power, the colonial era, and after the events of September 11, 2001; rivalries in which the depiction of the Prophetic Sirah was done in a way to ensure victory in the propaganda war against Muslims.[81]
*Difa' 'an al-'Aqida wa al-Shari'a* written by Muhammad al-Ghazali
**Scientific and Research Weakness:** Motzki considers this to include cases such as the lack of systematic and critical studies regarding the sources of Hadiths related to the Prophet's (s) Sirah, weakness in presenting standard methods for evaluating Sirah narrations, and reliance on limited sources in Sirah studies.[82]
**Non-Scientific Motives:** Sometimes Orientalists were employed by institutions for Oriental work, and those institutions had political and military purposes; this caused non-scientific motives to affect impartial research in their Sirah studies perspective.[83]
**Materialistic interpretation of Sirah's spiritual truths:** In some Sirah studies writings, a purely materialistic view of the Prophet's (s) Sirah has caused his individual and social Sirah to be depicted somewhat minus non-material goals; such that, for example, all political actions of the Prophet (s) are interpreted in the direction of maintaining and expanding political power, not for expanding Islam based on the concept of Prophethood.[84]
Regarding Ahl al-Bayt Sirah Studies
Criticisms, both methodological and content-wise, have been raised by some researchers against works of Ahl al-Bayt (a) Sirah studies among non-Muslim scholars, including:[85]
**Incorrect understanding of Shi'i concepts and views regarding the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** It is said that attention to the Sirah of the Imams (a) in the works of Shia scholars is not due to their spiritual sanctity, but examined in terms of the influence they had on Islamic history.[86] Based on this, some Shia beliefs that were meaningful in this context have been misunderstood; such as the Imamate of Imam al-Hadi (a) in childhood being regarded as a problem in Shia Theology in his entry in the *Encyclopaedia of Islam*.[87]
**Lack of reliable research on the lives of all Ahl al-Bayt (a):** It is quoted from Hassan Ansari, a scholar of Shi'ism, that in the works of Shia scholars, with one or two exceptions, no book has been written about the life, teachings, and political, social, and religious contribution of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).[88] Existing works are considered deficient both in terms of the quality of representation of their teachings and in covering the Sirah of all of them.[89]*Raz-e Bozorg-e Resalat* written by Jafar Subhani
**Failure to present a correct theory based on Shi'i history and beliefs regarding the formation of Imamate:** Some believe that Orientalists, while paying attention to the concept of Imamate and the historical course of its concept, have presented opinions about it that are sometimes not in accordance with Shi'i religious thoughts; such as some of them considering the doctrine of Imamate to be fabricated by the students of Imam al-Sadiq (a).[90]
**Presenting an incorrect interpretation of some behaviors of the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** For example, it is said that many Orientalists have considered the Imams of the Shia, except for Imam Ali (a) and Imam al-Husayn (a), to be comfort-seeking individuals who avoided entering social and political issues of their time; they have regarded the doctrine of Taqiyya in Shi'ism as a result of an effort to religiously justify this comfort-seeking.[91]
**Emphasizing the status of the Safavid era in the emergence of the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** It is said that some non-Muslim Sirah scholars have considered the bulk of the teachings of the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) to be the result of the activity of scholars of the Safavid era; a matter considered a prelude to replacing "God-centrism" with "Imam-centrism" in Shi'i teachings.[92]
**Belief in the doctrinal influence of other religions and sects on the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** Such as Madelung considering some teachings of the Shia Imams (a) regarding Divine Will and divine knowledge to be derived from the Mu'tazila.[93]
**Lack of attention to approaches and differences of various historical sources related to the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** It is said that narrating the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) relying on historical and narrative sources under the influence of Umayyad and Abbasid rule has caused the image presented of them in Orientalist works to be contrary to the Shi'i narrative of the Sirah of their leaders based on other sources.[94]
**Looking at the Sirah of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) from the perspective of biased Sunni sources:** As it is said, for example, in the entry of Imam Ali (a) in the *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, relying solely on certain specific Sunni sources, the narration of Laylat al-Mabit has been disputed.[95]
**Not conducting Hadith comprehension research regarding narrations quoted about the Ahl al-Bayt (a):** For example, reference is made to some works of Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi,[96] an Iranian scholar of Shi'ism residing in France, who has derived concepts about the Shia Imams (a) from narrations without validating their chain of transmission or implication; such as considering divination (Fal-zadan) as one of the ways for the Imam to attain knowledge by relying on a narration without validating it.[97]
↑Abd al-Mohammadi, *Mustashriqan va Payambar-e A'zam*, 1392 Sh, pp. 44-45.
↑Abd al-Mohammadi, *Mustashriqan va Payambar-e A'zam*, 1392 Sh, pp. 65-68.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, pp. 347-364.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 347.
↑Taghizadeh Davari, *Tasvir-e Imaman-e Shia...*, 1385 Sh, p. 405.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 347.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 347.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 348.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 352; Taghizadeh Davari, *Tasvir-e Imaman-e Shia...*, 1385 Sh, p. 299.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 351.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 350.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 353.
↑Taghizadeh Davari, *Tasvir-e Imaman-e Shia...*, 1385 Sh, pp. 46-47; Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 356.
↑Amir-Moezzi, *The Divine Guide in Early Shi'ism*, 1398 Sh, p. 170.
↑Maddahi, *Sireh-ye Imaman-e Shia*, 1402 Sh, p. 358.
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