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Social Justice (Arabic: العدالة الاجتماعية) is defined as the possibility for everyone to benefit from fair conditions to access social resources and opportunities. According to this concept, individuals in identical conditions are treated equally, and in different conditions, they are treated in proportion to their abilities, merits, and needs. Although Social Justice is considered a modern concept, it has deep roots in Islamic studies and is connected to sciences such as fiqh (Jurisprudence), theology, philosophy, ethics, law, politics, and economics. In some studies, Social Justice is proposed as a Jurisprudential Rule (al-Qa'ida al-Fiqhiyya), which is applied both in proving or negating Shari'a rulings and as a criterion for assessing the correctness or incorrectness of jurisprudential rulings. Based on the Governmental Fiqh approach, this rule can serve as a basis for the inference of the Mujtahid in cases where there is a lack of religious text (Naṣṣ).

The prevalence of the theory of Social Justice in Shi'a thought is attributed to the reform of the individualistic approach to justice, avoiding the restriction of justice solely to ethical matters and personal characteristics (Individual Justice). The realization of Social Justice has been considered one of the goals of the mission of the prophets, citing Qur'anic verses. Thinkers such as Imam Khomeini, 'Allama Tabataba'i, and Morteza Motahhari consider God's commands regarding justice in the Qur'an to refer more to Social Justice than to individual justice. Islamic thinkers also consider the origin of Social Justice to be in human nature (fiṭra), viewing it as a general human value that encompasses all aspects of human life.

Understanding the concept of Social Justice is considered dependent on understanding its elements and indicators, including Freedom, Equality, social cooperation, observance of merit and competence, and giving every right-holder their due. Researchers believe that Social Justice is realized when the social rights of citizens are recognized and a balance is established between the rights of the individual and society. The formation of a government is considered another condition for the realization of Social Justice; a government that provides the grounds for justice in political, economic, and cultural arenas. Social Justice in the political dimension means equal participation, government neutrality, and meritocracy; in the economic dimension, it refers to the fair distribution of wealth, fighting corruption, and reducing class gaps; and in culture, it means the equal distribution of educational and cultural opportunities. Creating balance and order in society, preserving human dignity, and developing human capabilities are counted among the results and goals of Social Justice, the observance of which leads to Security, peace, the reform of society, and the destruction of Oppression (Ẓulm).

Some Islamic sects, a number of Western schools of thought, and proponents of Marxist ideas have introduced Social Justice as an impractical concept, a violator of freedom, or a product of the capitalist world that should not be pursued. Muslim opponents of Social Justice believe that since Islam is a complete religion that covers all the spiritual and material needs of human beings, there is no need for human institutions and knowledge such as Social Justice for social modeling.

Status

Although Social Justice is considered a new concept,[1] it has a very ancient backing and has occupied a large part of research related to Justice studies in the past and present. Some have traced the roots of this topic in Islamic sciences even to the works of philosophers like al-Farabi.[2] The issue of Social Justice is related to various fields of knowledge such as Philosophy, Ethics, political and social sciences, law, economics, educational sciences, and psychology,[3] as well as religious sciences such as kalam and fiqh.[4]

The expansion of this theory in Shi'a thought is considered a result of setting aside the individualistic view that was common among some Sunnis, who limited justice only to ethical matters or Individual Justice.[5] Also, the increase in the social and political role of humans and their presence in public arenas such as economics, culture, and politics is seen as a reason for the prominence of the subject of Social Justice;[6] to the extent that the United Nations has named February 20 as "World Day of Social Justice".[7]

Islamic thinkers like Imam Khomeini consider the realization of Social Justice to be one of the important goals of the mission of the Prophets, based on verses such as Qur'an 57:25.[8] 'Allama Tabataba'i also states under the Qur'an 16:90 that the divine command for justice relates to Social Justice, not individual justice.[9] Murtada Mutahhari also believes that most verses related to justice in the Qur'an are about Social Justice.[10] Ahmad Vaezi, a religious researcher in the field of Social Justice, considers Qur'anic commands regarding justice and Qist (equity) to be Foundational Rulings (al-Aḥkām al-Taʾsīsiyya) that the society and political system are obliged to establish in all arenas of life.[11]

Researchers have identified a number of teachings in Nahj al-balagha concerning the issue of Social Justice. Among them, the statement of Imam Ali (a) in the Shiqshiqiyya Sermon upon accepting the Caliphate[12] is considered a sign that the Imam accepted governance to realize this type of justice.[13] Also, the recommendation to observe fairness towards all citizens in Malik al-Ashtar's Letter,[14] creating equal opportunities for all,[15] the execution of law without discrimination,[16] and attention to the needy[17] are considered instances where the Imam intended the observance of Social Justice.[18]

Social Justice, which is introduced in religious studies as one of the pillars of Islam,[19] is considered the main axis for regulating the relationship of individuals with each other and the relationship of the state with the people,[20] resulting in the formation of just structures.[21] Thus, it is said that Social Justice is linked to the concept of the state and Citizenship rights, and its realization is one of the duties of the state.[22]

The Jurisprudential Rule of Social Justice

In some jurisprudential studies, Social Justice is referred to as a Jurisprudential Rule (al-Qāʿida al-Fiqhiyya). This rule can be used by jurists both to prove or negate Shari'a rulings and as a criterion for assessing the correctness or incorrectness of jurisprudential rulings.[23] Accordingly, it is said that the rule of Social Justice can guide the Mujtahid in cases where there is no religious text (Mantiqat al-Faragh); because the foundation of religion and Shari'a rulings is built on justice, and if a ruling is incompatible with justice, it can be set aside according to this rule.[24]

Another point mentioned regarding the jurisprudential rule of Social Justice is that this rule cannot be realized based on an individualistic approach to fiqh, and its conditions and executive grounds can only be provided through the approach of Governmental Fiqh.[25]

Conceptology

Justice researchers have not provided a specific and precise definition of the concept of Social Justice in their studies; rather, they have mostly explained it by clarifying its elements, pillars, and instances;[26] nevertheless, some have tried to offer a definition of Social Justice considering its main elements. According to them, Social Justice means "the possibility for everyone to benefit from fair conditions to access social resources and opportunities"[27] or "preserving and observing the rights of all people and paying attention to public interests."[28] In explaining these definitions, it is said that Social Justice means that in equal conditions, everyone should be treated equally, and in different conditions, behavior should be adjusted based on the abilities, needs, and real merits of individuals.[29]

Conceptual Evolution of Social Justice

Social Justice was initially understood through an economic perspective. In this view, Social Justice was regarded as "the fair distribution of facilities and wealth among individuals" and was usually referred to as Distributive Justice;[30] however, gradually, the concept of Social Justice came to be regarded as a pervasive value encompassing all social domains. Accordingly, Social Justice was conceived as a state in which the necessary conditions are provided so that every right-holder can attain their right; consequently, social affairs are also organized.[31]

Accurate knowledge of the reality of Social Justice is also considered dependent on knowing Islam's mindset regarding existence, life, and humans.[32] Based on this, it is said that since Islam is a comprehensive religion including Acts of Worship and Transactions, belief and action, economic and spiritual values, and this world and the Hereafter; therefore, Social Justice is also a general human justice that includes all manifestations of life, not a limited economic or individual dimension.[33]

To understand the concept of Social Justice, it has also been noted that understanding it in any society depends on knowing the accepted beliefs and customs of that society; therefore, the understanding of Social Justice is historical, and one cannot expect an abstract concept alien to cultural realities and universally applicable from it; meaning, every society will have a specific interpretation of Social Justice based on its culture and conditions.[34]

Origin of Social Justice

Different views have been expressed regarding the origin of Social Justice. Some, like Imam Khomeini[35] and Murtada Mutahhari[36] have considered it to be based on human nature. In contrast, a number of Western thinkers like John Rawls, known as a theorist of justice, consider it merely a moral virtue.[37] Another group has accepted justice due to its utility for humans; meaning, since justice is beneficial for humans, it has legitimacy.[38] Based on the view that establishes justice on human nature, it is said that this basis also allows for the proposal of broader concepts such as Global Justice and Intergenerational Justice.[39]

Elements and Indicators

Thinkers believe that to understand the concept of Social Justice, one inevitably must understand elements or indicators referred to as the meaning-making elements of Social Justice. Some of these elements include Freedom, Equality, social cooperation, giving every right-holder their due, and observance of merit and worthiness.[40]

  • Freedom: Freedom means humans being free from the domination of others and submitting only to God. According to some Islamic thinkers, this type of spiritual and psychological freedom makes humans resistant to discriminatory factors and is one of the factors in achieving Social Justice.[41]
  • Equality: Equality is the opposite point of discrimination; meaning, where equality is desired and necessary, any kind of discrimination such as ethnic, racial, class, etc., will be an instance of injustice.[42] Murtada Mutahhari, the Shi'a thinker, by rejecting absolute equality which ignores merits and competencies, considers the meaning of equality to be the removal of discrimination and equality before the law, not equal law for everyone.[43]
  • Social Cooperation: Social cooperation is considered to regulate the limits of freedom and equality; because absolute freedom and comprehensive equality are not sustainable, and the interests of society require the creation of some limitations on the freedom and equality of individuals.[44]
  • Observance of Merit and Worthiness: In cases where benefiting from a privilege is conditional on individuals having merit and competence, failing to observe these competencies in the social system and believing in absolute equality is considered the very essence of injustice, which will lead to creating obstacles in the realization of Social Justice.[45]
  • Giving Every Right-Holder Their Due: Depriving individuals of a share they legally and religiously own is an instance of injustice and considered one of the most important factors damaging Social Justice.[46]

Ways of Realization

The main presupposition for the realization of Social Justice is initially considered conditional on recognizing the social rights of citizens and giving priority to society over the individual; based on this, it is said that if a conflict arises between the rights of the individual and society, the side of society should be taken; of course, not in an extreme way that individual rights are ignored;[47] in other words, Social Justice is realized when a balance is established between the rights of the individual and society; neither the individual is eliminated nor the society.[48]

Based on the theory of the precedence of society over the individual, it is said that the realization of Social Justice will not be possible without the formation of a government;[49] therefore, speaking of Social Justice is in fact speaking of a society with a specific state and territory that wants to organize institutions, structures, opportunities, and duties of individuals based on fair criteria.[50]

In addition to presupposing the priority of society over the individual and the formation of government for realizing Social Justice, solutions have also been offered for realizing this type of justice in its various dimensions such as political, economic, and cultural.

  • Political: Social Justice in its political dimension is regarded as achieving just governance in which the existence of Political freedoms as the basis of Political participation is guaranteed by the state, the grounds for accessing social positions and participation in the political system are provided, the state maintains its neutrality in the various stages of legislation, execution, and judgment, all individuals are considered equal before the Law, and finally, the existence of a fair selection system for all individuals and the observance of the principle of meritocracy is emphasized.[51] According to Ahmad Vaezi, the establishment of Political Justice depending on the social and political realities of each society requires institution-building, reform of political processes, and enacting special regulations, and in the Islamic society, the Fiqh of Politics plays a significant role in formulating the theory of political justice.[52]
  • Economic: The realization of Social Justice in the economic arena implies the fair distribution of wealth and facilities,[53] state intervention to adjust or eliminate class gaps,[54] removing Corruption from the country's administrative and management systems, reforming monetary and Taxation policies, placing production facilities and economic activity at the disposal of the general public, reducing class gaps with mechanisms such as Infaq, Zakat, Khums, Waqf, and Social Security to create economic balance, public training of techniques and skills, establishing a cooperative system, etc.[55]
  • Cultural: Cultural Justice is discussed where the fairness or unfairness of cultural policies and the distribution of cultural goods is spoken of.[56] The issue of Cultural Justice involves the fair distribution of cultural goods and endowments, which includes a wide range of cultural goods, cultural rights, and cultural life.[57] Cultural Justice is considered to be finding ways to establish justice in the formation of mentalities and their change, and consequently in the type of behavior of individuals; therefore, one of the grounds for realizing Cultural Justice is considered to be the equality of individuals in benefiting from knowledge and wisdom according to their nature, taste, and interest.[58]

Goals and Results

The main goal of Social Justice is considered to be that every human being in society can receive a fitting response proportional to their efforts and merits,[59] which, according to a narration from Imam Ali (a), will also lead to the reform of society.[60] Murtada Mutahhari considers the result of observing Social Justice to be the survival and progress of society and, conversely, the prevalence of injustice as the cause of the decline and collapse of society.[61] Emad Afroogh, a researcher in social sciences, citing a number of narrations and religious teachings, believes that Social Justice leads to the reform of people's affairs, the prosperity of cities, the fulfillment of human rights,[62] the destruction of Injustice (Ẓulm) and the oppressor, and serves as a means of relief.[63]

Ahmad Vaezi also believes that defenders of Social Justice have usually had a critical stance towards the existing status of their society; for this reason, by theorizing around the concept of Social Justice, they pursued the goal of proposing a model for exiting the current situation and, based on this model, helping to make various dimensions of social life fair and establishing a just Social Order.[64]

Preserving human dignity and developing human capabilities are also considered results of realizing Social Justice in society; because observing human rights by others is essentially respecting the dignity of the other and will strengthen the connection of society members with each other.[65] Also, creating peace and security in society is considered one of the results of implementing Social Justice in society,[66] which itself will not be secured without Economic Justice and Judicial Justice.[67]

Opponents

In contrast to those who consider Social Justice necessary for making social relations fair and the fair distribution of gifts among all equal humans,[68] some schools of thought, both in the Islamic World and in the Western world like radical liberals such as Friedrich von Hayek, and also in the Eastern world in Marxist thoughts, do not see a necessity to resort to the concept of Social Justice to organize the collective life of humans.[69] They have relied on reasons such as the completeness of the Shari'a of Islam and the lack of need for human knowledge for social modeling,[70] resorting to the concept of obedience to the law instead of Social Justice for organizing social life, the meaninglessness and impracticality of Social Justice, the destruction of social order and freedom, and the necessity of relying on free-market ideas.[71]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ghanī-nizhād, "ʿAdālat, ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣād", p. 780; Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 51-52.
  2. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī wa masāʾil-i ān", pp. 189-190.
  3. ↑ Ghanī-nizhād, "ʿAdālat, ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣād", p. 777; Vāʿiẓī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī wa masāʾil-i ān", p. 192.
  4. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Khuṭūṭ-i iqtiṣād-i Islāmī, 1360 Sh, p. 23; Sulaymānī & Rāghibī, "Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi qāʿida-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 34-35; Aḥmadī & Zālī, "Tabīyyīn-i fiqhī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bi mathāba-yi waẓīfa-yi ḥākimīyat-i sīyāsī dar andīsha-yi Imām Khumaynī", pp. 114-116.
  5. ↑ Jamshīdī, Naẓarīyya-yi ʿadālat ..., 1380 Sh, pp. 227-228; Fawzī & Murādī, "Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi naẓarīyya-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām wa gharb", pp. 97-98.
  6. ↑ Jamshīdī & Īrān-nizhād, "Muqaddama-ī bar tabīyyīn-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar andīsha-yi Imām Khumaynī", p. 16.
  7. ↑ Mīr-ḥusaynī, "Rūz-i jahānī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", in Etemad Newspaper.
  8. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām, 1378 Sh, vol. 11, p. 386 & vol. 15, p. 213.
  9. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, 1393 AH, vol. 12, p. 331.
  10. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿAdl-i Ilāhī, 1391 Sh, p. 37.
  11. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 150-151.
  12. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha (Subḥī Ṣāliḥ), Sermon 3, p. 50.
  13. ↑ Jahānī-pūr, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar kalām wa sīra-yi Amīr al-Muʾminīn", p. 119.
  14. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha (Subḥī Ṣāliḥ), Letter 53, p. 428.
  15. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha (Subḥī Ṣāliḥ), Sermon 15, p. 57.
  16. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha (Subḥī Ṣāliḥ), Sermon 37, p. 81.
  17. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha (Subḥī Ṣāliḥ), Wisdom 328, p. 533.
  18. ↑ Jahānī-pūr, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar kalām wa sīra-yi Amīr al-Muʾminīn", pp. 13-21; Aḥmadī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī az manẓar-i Nahj al-balāgha", pp. 100-106.
  19. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qurʾān, 1386 Sh, vol. 4, p. 576.
  20. ↑ Fawzī & Murādī, "Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi naẓarīyya-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām wa gharb", p. 94.
  21. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī wa masāʾil-i ān", pp. 191-192.
  22. ↑ Aḥmadī & Zālī, "Tabīyyīn-i fiqhī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bi mathāba-yi waẓīfa-yi ḥākimīyat-i sīyāsī dar andīsha-yi Imām Khumaynī", p. 114.
  23. ↑ Sulaymānī & Rāghibī, "Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi qāʿida-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 34-35, 38.
  24. ↑ ʿAlī-Akbarīyān, Qāʿida-yi ʿadālat dar fiqh-i Imāmīyya, 1386 Sh, p. 221.
  25. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 157-159.
  26. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 31-36.
  27. ↑ Anvarī, Farhang-i buzurg-i sukhan, under the entry.
  28. ↑ Muṭahharī, Bīst guftār, 1402 Sh, p. 96; Ṣalībā, Farhang-i falsafī, 1366 Sh, p. 461.
  29. ↑ Ghanawī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī az dīdgāh-i Islām", pp. 96-97.
  30. ↑ Ghanī-nizhād, "ʿAdālat, ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣād", pp. 781-782.
  31. ↑ Sayyid-Bāqirī, Rāhkārhā-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar niẓām-i Islāmī, 1387 Sh, p. 25; Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 58-67.
  32. ↑ Quṭb, ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1379 Sh, p. 41.
  33. ↑ Jamshīdī & Īrān-nizhād, "Muqaddama-ī bar tabīyyīn-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar andīsha-yi Imām Khumaynī", p. 22; Quṭb, ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1379 Sh, p. 52; Lārījānī, "Sanjish-i sāzigārī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa tawsaʿa", pp. 16-18.
  34. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 11-12.
  35. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Sharḥ-i chihil ḥadīth, 1376 Sh, p. 113; Imām Khumaynī, Junūd-i ʿaql wa jahl, 1386 Sh, p. 147.
  36. ↑ Muṭahharī, Majmūʿa-yi āthār, 1389 Sh, vol. 18, pp. 155-157; Fayyāḍ-bakhsh et al., "Rābiṭa-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bā mabānī-yi ḥuqūq-i Islāmī wa ḥukmrānī-yi maṭlūb bar mabnā-yi dīdgāh-i Shahīd Muṭahharī", pp. 129-133.
  37. ↑ Fawzī & Murādī, "Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi naẓarīyya-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām wa gharb", p. 100.
  38. ↑ Jalīlī Marand et al., "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī az dīdgāh-i Hayek, Rawls, Shahīd Muṭahharī wa Shahīd Ṣadr", p. 187.
  39. ↑ Fayyāḍ-bakhsh et al., "Rābiṭa-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bā mabānī-yi ḥuqūq-i Islāmī wa ḥukmrānī-yi maṭlūb bar mabnā-yi dīdgāh-i Shahīd Muṭahharī", p. 123.
  40. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 36-41; Quṭb, ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām, 1379 Sh, p. 63; ʿAywaḍlū, "Mafāhīm wa maʿyārhā-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣādī dar chāhar-chūb-i algū-yi Islāmī Īrānī-yi pīshraft", pp. 164-165.
  41. ↑ Pīrūzmand, "Taḥlīl-i nisbat-i ʿadālat wa āzādī bā takīya bar mafhūm-i ʿubūdīyat wa taʾthīr-i ān dar ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 72; Ismāʿīl-pūr Niyāzī, "Tabīyyīn-i jāygāh-i aṣl-i āzādī dar ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bā rūykard-i Islāmī", pp. 104-106; Quṭb, ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām, 1379 Sh, p. 86.
  42. ↑ Aṣgharī, "Mafhūm, mabānī wa shākhiṣhā-yi aṣlī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī az manẓar-i inqilāb-i Islāmī", pp. 50-51; Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 36-37.
  43. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿAdl-i Ilāhī, 1391 Sh, pp. 54-58.
  44. ↑ Ṣadr, Iqtiṣād-i mā, 1350 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 263-269; Quṭb, ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām, 1379 Sh, pp. 103-104.
  45. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 38-39.
  46. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿAdl-i Ilāhī, 1391 Sh, pp. 54-58; ʿAywaḍlū, "Mafāhīm wa maʿyārhā-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣādī dar chāhar-chūb-i algū-yi Islāmī Īrānī-yi pīshraft", p. 165; Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 37-38.
  47. ↑ Afrūgh, Ḥuqūq-i shahrwandī wa ʿadālat, 1387 Sh, p. 23; Muṭahharī, Majmūʿa-yi āthār, 1390 Sh, vol. 21, p. 223.
  48. ↑ Sulaymānī & Rāghibī, "Barrasī-yi fiqhī-yi qāʿida-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 41.
  49. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām, 1378 Sh, vol. 4, p. 427; Ḥaq-panāh, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Qurʾān", pp. 71-72.
  50. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī wa masāʾil-i ān", p. 192.
  51. ↑ Kaykhā, "Sāzūkārhā-yi taḥaqquq-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām", p. 216; Makhzan Mūsawī, "Rāhkārhā-yi taḥaqquq-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 222; Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 22.
  52. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 23-25.
  53. ↑ Miṣbāḥī Muqaddam, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām", pp. 229-230.
  54. ↑ Jamshīdī & Īrān-nizhād, "Muqaddama-ī bar tabīyyīn-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar andīsha-yi Imām Khumaynī", pp. 30-31.
  55. ↑ Ghanawī, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī az dīdgāh-i Islām", pp. 97-99; Makhzan Mūsawī, "Rāhkārhā-yi taḥaqquq-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 223-224; Kaykhā, "Sāzūkārhā-yi taḥaqquq-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām", pp. 216-217.
  56. ↑ Vāʿiẓī & Awliyāʾī, "ʿAdālat-i farhangī; ʿunṣur-i muqawwim-i ḥukūmat-i ʿAlawī", p. 49.
  57. ↑ Awliyāʾī, "Taṣwīr-i maʿyārhā-yi ʿadālat-i farhangī", p. 256.
  58. ↑ Kaykhā, "Sāzūkārhā-yi taḥaqquq-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Islām", p. 218.
  59. ↑ Dast-ranj, "Taḥlīl-i guftimān-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī bā taʾkīd bar āmūzahā-yi Qurʾān-i Karīm dar sīra-yi Imām ʿAlī", p. 28.
  60. ↑ Laythī, ʿUyūn al-ḥikam wa al-mawāʿiẓ, 1376 Sh, p. 48.
  61. ↑ Muṭahharī, Bīst guftār, 1402 Sh, p. 71.
  62. ↑ Ḥakīmī, al-Ḥayāt, 1368 Sh, vol. 6, pp. 400, 404, 407.
  63. ↑ Afrūgh, "Pīsh-farḍhā wa rūykardhā-yi naẓarī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 55.
  64. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", pp. 10-11.
  65. ↑ Ḥaq-panāh, "ʿAdālat-i ijtimāʿī dar Qurʾān", pp. 74-75.
  66. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Imām Amīr al-Muʾminīn, vol. 3, p. 587; Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i namūna, 1374 Sh, vol. 5, p. 321.
  67. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Islām dar yak nigāh, 1383 Sh, p. 105.
  68. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, p. 95.
  69. ↑ Ḥājī-ḥaydar, "Niyāz bi mafhūm-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī...", pp. 140-141; Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 15.
  70. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, "Kārkard-i fiqh-i sīyāsī dar naẓarīyya-pardāzī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī", p. 15.
  71. ↑ Vāʿiẓī, Bāz-andīshī-yi ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī, 1401 Sh, pp. 96-109; Ḥājī-ḥaydar, "Niyāz bi mafhūm-i ʿadālat-i ijtimāʿī...", pp. 140-141.

References

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