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Zand dynasty

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The Zand dynasty (Persian: زندیه) (1794-1750) was a dynasty of rulers in Iran that, following the fall of the Safavid Shi'a government and the period of non-Shi'a dominance by the Afghans and Afsharids, paved the way for a new phase of cultural reconstruction and stabilization of Shi'ism. It is considered a bridge between the religious policies of the Safavids and the Qajars. Karim Khan Zand, the founder of the Zand dynasty, called himself the Representative of the Subjects. Despite not declaring Shi'aas the official religion, he held special respect for the ulama and Shi'a rituals. During the Zand period, the scholars did not possess political power but enjoyed relative freedom, playing roles in social, educational, and judicial affairs. Shi'a rituals, such as the Ashura mourning, the construction and renovation of religious sites, and the holding of religious gatherings were conducted with greater freedom which contributed to the cohesion of the Shi'a community. Branding coins with Shi'a symbols and religious architecture, such as the Vakil Mosque in Shiraz, played a role in the unofficial promotion of Shi'ism.

The Zands in the Transition of Iranian History

The Zand dynasty was founded in 1750-1 by Karim Khan Zand, a soldier of Nadir Shah, following the collapse of the Afsharid government and prior to the consolidation of power by the Qajars.[1] They ruled mostly in the central and western regions of Iran.[2] Karīm Khān Zand made Shiraz his capital in 1766-7.[3]

Following his death in 1779, a period of internal conflict began. Zaki Khan Zand, Karīm Khān's brother-in-law, took power for a short period (100 days)[4] but was killed due to his violence.[5] Subsequently, Abu l-Fath Khan Zand, the son of Karim Khan, ascended the throne for a shorter period of 70 days,[6] however, real influence lay with Sadiq Khan Zand, who also called himself king for a while.[7] Later, in 1789, Ali Murad Khan Zand seized power by pushing aside Abū l-Fatḥ Khān and ruled until 1785.[8] After him, Ja'far Khan Zand came to the throne; despite efforts to stabilize the government, he was killed in 1789.[9] In the absence of his son, Lutf Ali Khan, Sayd Murad Khan Zand ruled for a short time.[10] The last king of the Zand dynasty was Lutf Ali Khan Zand, who took power in Shiraz in 1789. He resisted Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, but was ultimately defeated,[11] and with his death in 1794-5, the rule of the Zands came to an end.[12]

Transition of Shi'afrom the Safavid Crisis to Reconstruction under the Zands

After the fall of the Safavids in 1722, during the seven-year rule of the Afghans and the Afsharid era, Shi'ain Iran came under severe pressure.[13] The policies of the rulers of the time, especially Nadir Shah, weakened the position of Shi'ism. Consequently, a large group of scholars and Muslim merchants migrated to India and the Atabat. This trend went so far as to nearly abolish the official status of the faith, but the deep-rooted religious beliefs among the people and the social influence of the scholars prevented this from happening.[14]

In the short interval between the Afsharids and the Qajars, with the rise of the Zand government (1750 - 1794) and especially during the era of Karim Khan Zand, the country's political atmosphere moved toward relative stability and peace.[15] Although the scholars did not enjoy direct political power in this period as they did before, they found a better position compared to the Afsharid era. During this period, limited social duties were assigned to them, and Shi'a rituals and religious sites were accorded attention and respect.[16]

Policy of Religious Tolerance in Interaction with the Shi'a

In the Zand period, Shi'ism was not declared the official state religion, but the government did not show hostility toward it. Karim Khan Zand, by avoiding religious conflicts, adopted a policy based on religious tolerance and moderation toward the Sunnis and other sects. As a result, the scholars enjoyed relative freedom and were able to play an effective role in social and judicial spheres. Even some scholars who had previously migrated to the Atabat returned to Iran.[17]

Karīm Khān Zand sought to gain public satisfaction and maintain social stability by utilizing cultural tools and constructive interaction with the scholars. This method of governance can be considered the Zand government's use of the scholars' social influence to establish order and legitimacy,[18] and an example of exercising cultural hegemony;[19] a type of power formed based on consent and persuasion, not on force and coercion.[20]

Independence of the Shi'a Clergy and Social and Religious Roles

During the Zand era, the relationship between the political institution and the religious institution was very limited and minimal,[21] and effectively the power of the clergy residing in Iran had decreased.[22] However, given the temporal proximity of this period to the Safavid era, the general religious structure of that time was preserved, and consequently, Shi'a clergy in the Zand era also attained religious and judicial positions.[23] While respecting the scholars, Karim Khan Zand did not allocate stipends or financial support for them and prevented their interference and influence in government and politics.[24]

Geographical Dispersion of Scholars and Their Scientific Travels

In the Zand period, scholars continued their scientific and educational activities while maintaining their relative independence. Alongside internal scientific centers such as Shiraz and Isfahan, the scientific travels of scholars to the religious cities of Iraq, such as Karbala and Najaf, and even India, flourished.[25] These scientific journeys and migrations, especially to some Shi'a-populated states of India, caused the spread of Shi'ism within the Indian subcontinent.[26]

Rituals and Cultural Symbols of Shi'ain the Zand Atmosphere

During the Zand era, Shi'a religious rituals such as Muharram mourning ceremonies, the construction and renovation of religious sites such as the Shrine of Shah Cheragh, and the holding of religious gatherings were conducted with greater freedom. These played a role in the social cohesion of the Shi'a of that period.[27] It was in this period that the first examples of Ta'ziya formed.[28]

Attention to the names of the Imams and phrases such as "Ali wali Allah" (Ali is the friend of God) and "Ṣāḥib al-Zamān" and other titles of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) on the coins of the Zand period is considered one of the main religious symbols of this era.[29] Zand religious architecture also became a tool for expressing Shi'a identity, and the Vakil Mosque in Shiraz, with signs of Shi'a symbols, was a reflection of the cultural policy of the Zand government.[30]

Relations of the Zands with the Ottoman State and Its Impact on Shi'a

The relations of the Zands with the Ottoman Empire, which held the Hijaz and benefited financially and politically from the Shi'a interest in the Hajj, had a direct impact on the Iranian Shi'as and their Hajj pilgrimage.[31] In some cases, official preachers in the Haramayn were obliged to curse the Shi'as, which caused persecution of Iranian pilgrims.[32] Karim Khan Zand's attack on Basra to confront the Ottomans, and in reaction to the persecution of Shi'a pilgrims, indicated unofficial support for the Shi'as.[33]

Role of the Character and Religion of Karim Khan Zand

Karim Khan Zand, the founder of the Zand dynasty, behaviorally had a calm, prudent, and tolerant personality.[34] By avoiding the use of royal titles, he called himself the Representative of the Subjects; a title that indicated his political humility and expressed an effort to give popular legitimacy to his government.[35] The Zand tribe were followers of the Shi'a faith,[36] and some sources have considered Karīm Khān Zand's religion to be Twelver Shi'a.[37] This fact meant that although he did not declare Shi'aas the official religion, he did not show hostility toward it either.[38]

Notes

  1. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, pp. 400, 404.
  2. ↑ Tanhatān Nāṣirī, Zandiyān, p. 693.
  3. ↑ Ḥusaynī Fasāʾī, Fārsnāma-yi Nāṣirī, vol. 1, p. 609.
  4. ↑ Ḥusaynī Fasāʾī, Fārsnāma-yi Nāṣirī, vol. 1, p. 620.
  5. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, p. 408.
  6. ↑ Ḥusaynī Fasāʾī, Fārsnāma-yi Nāṣirī, vol. 1, p. 621.
  7. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, p. 408.
  8. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, p. 409.
  9. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, p. 410.
  10. ↑ Ṣadr Ḥājj Sayyid Jawādī, Zandiyya, p. 529.
  11. ↑ Sykes, Tārīkh-i Īrān, 1380 Sh, vol. 2, p. 415.
  12. ↑ Tanhatān Nāṣirī, Zandiyān, p. 693.
  13. ↑ Izadī, Waḍʿiyyat-i siyāsī-yi Tashayyuʿ az iḍmiḥlāl-i Ṣafawiyya tā Karīm Khān Zand, p. 8.
  14. ↑ Izadī, Waḍʿiyyat-i siyāsī-yi Tashayyuʿ az iḍmiḥlāl-i Ṣafawiyya tā Karīm Khān Zand, p. 8.
  15. ↑ Izadī, Waḍʿiyyat-i siyāsī-yi Tashayyuʿ az iḍmiḥlāl-i Ṣafawiyya tā Karīm Khān Zand, p. 8.
  16. ↑ Izadī, Waḍʿiyyat-i siyāsī-yi Tashayyuʿ az iḍmiḥlāl-i Ṣafawiyya tā Karīm Khān Zand, p. 8.
  17. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 140.
  18. ↑ Fattāḥī, Bāz-namāyī-yi hezhmonī dar siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 191.
  19. ↑ Fattāḥī, Bāz-namāyī-yi hezhmonī dar siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, pp. 186-187.
  20. ↑ Fattāḥī, Bāz-namāyī-yi hezhmonī dar siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 184.
  21. ↑ Ranjbar, Rābiṭa-yi nahād-i siyāsī wa madhhabī dar ḥukūmat-i Zandiyya, p. 58.
  22. ↑ Ṣadr Ḥājj Sayyid Jawādī, Zandiyya, p. 530.
  23. ↑ Izadī, Waḍʿiyyat-i siyāsī-yi Tashayyuʿ az iḍmiḥlāl-i Ṣafawiyya tā Karīm Khān Zand, p. 24.
  24. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 143.
  25. ↑ Dehqānī, Tadāwum-i sunnat-i āmūzishī-yi nahād-i dīnī-yi Īrān dar ʿaṣr-i Zandiyya, p. 12.
  26. ↑ Dehqānī, Tadāwum-i sunnat-i āmūzishī-yi nahād-i dīnī-yi Īrān dar ʿaṣr-i Zandiyya, p. 14.
  27. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 138.
  28. ↑ Muntaẓir al-Qāʾim, Barrasī-yi taghyīrāt-i ijtimāʿī-yi marāsim wa manāsik-i ʿazādārī-yi ʿĀshūrā dar Īrān, p. 56.
  29. ↑ Amrāʾī, Tarwīj-i shaʿāʾir-i Shīʿī bar rū-yi sikka-hā-yi dawra-yi Zandiyya, p. 60.
  30. ↑ Yārmuḥammadī, Barrasī wa tabyīn-i niẓām-i kārkard-i nishāna-hā dar khānish-i miʿmārī-yi madhhabī-yi dawra-yi Zandiyya, p. 198.
  31. ↑ Raḥmatī, Ḥajj-guzārī-yi Īrāniyān dar dawra-yi Afshāriyya wa Zandiyya, p. 169.
  32. ↑ Raḥmatī, Ḥajj-guzārī-yi Īrāniyān dar dawra-yi Afshāriyya wa Zandiyya, p. 169.
  33. ↑ Raḥmatī, Ḥajj-guzārī-yi Īrāniyān dar dawra-yi Afshāriyya wa Zandiyya, p. 169.
  34. ↑ Citation needed
  35. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 138.
  36. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 138.
  37. ↑ Fattāḥī, Bāz-namāyī-yi hezhmonī dar siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 188.
  38. ↑ Murtaḍawī, Siyāsat-i madhhabī-yi Karīm Khān Zand, p. 138.

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