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Captive (Arabic: أسير, asīr) designates an individual detained by enemy forces during an armed conflict. In the context of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), the term specifically denotes disbelieving or rebel combatant males, whereas captured women and children are classified under the term "sabi" (pl. sabaya). The Qur'an and Islamic texts frequently address the status of captives, outlining humanitarian rights and ethical treatment centuries prior to the codification of modern international law. The term appears in numerous Qur'anic verses, and historical accounts indicate that certain Prophets (a) were prohibited from taking captives under specific circumstances.

Islamic jurisprudence permits the taking of captives under strictly defined conditions, primarily following a decisive victory in battle. Captivity is lawful for those who support the enemy, violate peace treaties, or conspire against the Muslim community. Conversely, taking captives is prohibited prior to achieving complete victory, during a truce, or within the prohibited months. Violations of these statutes may warrant retaliation.

Religious texts delineate specific rights for captives, mandating the provision of basic necessities, respect for dignitaries, and humane treatment. It is obligatory for the captor to provide food and drink, regardless of the captive's faith. Regarding legal rulings, a captive may not be executed except in exceptional cases involving severe crimes or sedition (fitna). Release mechanisms include ransom, though many jurists advocate for unconditional release. Prophet Muhammad (s) was tasked with inviting captives to Islam, while remaining vigilant against feigned conversions intended for treachery.

Conceptology and Status

A captive is defined as a person apprehended by enemy forces amidst armed conflict.[1] Etymologically, the Arabic term asīr is derived from isār, referring to the rope used to bind a captive.[2] Scholars such as Hasan Mustafawi have broadened the definition to encompass any individual detained under authority, including slaves or prisoners.[3] In jurisprudential terminology, 'captive' typically refers to combatant males who are disbelievers or rebels, whereas the term "sabi" applies to captured women and children.[4]

In Islamic scholarship, the rights and rulings concerning captives are primarily discussed within the chapters on Jihad,[5] as well as in exegeses of Qur'anic verses pertaining to warfare.[6] In the modern era, these regulations fall under the purview of international humanitarian law.[7] Researchers posit that the humanitarian principles governing the treatment of captives were established in Islamic teachings long before the advent of contemporary international conventions.[8]

The Qur'an employs various derivatives of the root, such as "usārā",[9] "asrā",[10] "taʾsirūn",[11] and "asīran",[12] to address the subject of captivity.[13] Additionally, the phrase "fa-shuddū l-wathāq"[14] (bind [them] firmly) is interpreted as a directive regarding captives,[15] while "khudhūhum"[16] (seize them) acts as a metaphor for capture.[17] Certain Prophets (a) were explicitly forbidden from taking captives in specific contexts, as noted in Qur'an 2:246.[18]

Instances of Permissibility for Taking Captives

Religious texts sanction the taking of captives under specific conditions, including:

  1. After complete victory: 'Allama Tabataba'i, interpreting Qur'an 47:4, asserts that captivity is legitimate only after the war has concluded and Muslims have secured victory.[19] Similarly, Nasir Makarim Shirazi, citing Qur'an 8:67, maintains that taking captives is permissible solely after a decisive triumph.[20] He adds that killing enemies is prohibited after their defeat, unless specific captives pose a continued threat to the Muslim community.[21]
  2. Supporting the enemy: Pursuant to Qur'an 33:26, it is permissible to capture individuals who aided the enemy during war, even if they did not directly participate in combat.[22]
  3. Violating a peace treaty: Based on the Qur'an 9:5, if enemies violate a peace treaty, Muslims are authorized to capture them or apply other punitive measures such as siege or execution.[23]
  4. Conspiracy: According to Qur'an 4:91, hypocrites who actively conspire against Muslims must be captured or killed if they persist in their treachery.[24]

Instances of Prohibition for Taking Captives

Jurists have delineated circumstances under which taking captives is prohibited:

  1. Before complete victory over the enemy: Jurists argue that taking captives before the war has decisively ended[25] may diminish the combat efficacy of the Muslim forces and lead to defeat.[26]
  2. During a covenant or treaty: Taking captives is impermissible while a treaty or truce is in effect with the opposing party.[27]
  3. During the prohibited months: Engaging in warfare and taking captives during the sacred months of Dhu l-Qa'da, Dhu l-Hijja, Muharram, and Rajab is haram.[28] An exception is made for retaliation if the enemy initiates aggression during this period.[29]

Rights of the Captive

Religious texts outline various rights for captives, emphasizing the provision of necessities, security, and respect for dignity:

  1. Provision of basic needs and kindness toward the captive: A narration from Imam al-Sadiq (a) establishes that providing food and drink is obligatory upon the captor, even if the captive is a disbeliever or sentenced to death.[30] Kindness toward captives is a necessity in Islam,[31] a virtue highlighted in Qur'an 76:5 to 8, which lists feeding captives as a characteristic of the righteous.[32]
  2. Respect for the leaders and elders among captives: Imam Ali (a) forbade the sale or forced labor of captives and stressed respect for high-ranking prisoners. Historical reports indicate that when Umar b. al-Khattab intended to sell the daughters of the Persian King Khosrow and use them for labor, Imam Ali (a) intervened, ordering that they be treated with the respect due to their status.[33]

Rulings of Captivity

Religious texts prescribe specific rulings for captives secured after the cessation of hostilities:

  • Binding and non-permissibility of killing: The Qur'an prohibits killing a captive after victory unless the individual has committed specific crimes or incited sedition. For instance, the Prophet (s) ordered the execution of Uqba b. Abi Mu'ayt and al-Nadr b. al-Harith after the Battle of Badr, and Abi 'Azza and Mu'awiya b. al-Nadr after the Battle of Uhud.[34] Qur'an 47:4 mandates that Muslims bind captives firmly to prevent escape and re-enlistment with enemy forces, thereby securing the Muslim army against renewed threats.[35]
  • Exchange and release: Exchanging captives with rebels is permissible.[36] The Islamic ruler holds the discretion to release captives with or without ransom, based on communal interest.[37] Some jurists advocate for benevolent release without ransom.[38] The biography of the Prophet of Islam (s) contains numerous instances where he released captives without ransom, such as after the Battle of Badr and the Peace of Hudaybiyya.[39] Historical sources also note that literate captives unable to pay ransom were sometimes tasked with teaching children to read and write in exchange for their freedom.[40]
  • Captive's conversion to Islam: If a captive converts to Islam prior to capture, it is impermissible to kill or enslave them.[41] If conversion occurs after capture, the death penalty is waived, and the Imam determines their fate regarding slavery, ransom, or exchange.[42]
  • Inviting to Islam: The Prophet (s) was commanded to invite captives to Islam,[43] while remaining cautious of feigned conversions intended for treachery.[44]

Prohibition of Falling into Captivity

Hadith collections contain narrations discouraging surrender or voluntary captivity without resistance. These narrations highlight that the Ahl al-Bayt (a) strove to avoid captivity and the humiliation of enemy subjugation whenever possible,[45] regarding capture as reprehensible for those capable of fighting.[46] Furthermore, a narration from Imam Ali (a) indicates that if a Muslim is captured due to negligence or lack of resistance, their ransom is not to be paid from the Bayt al-Mal (public treasury), but must be borne by their family.[47]

Monograph

Several scholarly works have been dedicated to the subject of captives in Islamic thought:

  • Sar-nevesht-i Asir dar Islam, Barrasi-yi Tarikhi Fiqhi (The Fate of the Captive in Islam: A Historical and Jurisprudential Study) by Sayyid 'Ali Mir-sharifi. This monograph examines war, jihad, captivity, and slaveholding through historical and jurisprudential lenses. Published by SAMT Publications in 2016, the work received Honorable Mention at the 3rd Dehkhoda Scientific Festival and the 19th Seminary Book of the Year Awards in 2017.[48]
  • al-Asir fi al-Islam by Ali Ahmadi Miyanji. Written in Arabic, this book explores the Islamic perspective on captivity and the ethical treatment of prisoners. It was published by the Islamic Publication Office affiliated with the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom.[49]

Notes

  1. ↑ Gūyandih, "Asīr-i Jangī".
  2. ↑ Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, under the entry; Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, al-Mufradāt, under the entry 'asara; Dehkhodā, Loghatnāmih-yi Dehkhodā, under the entry; group of writers, Islām wa Asīr, Zamzam-i Hidāyat, p. 13.
  3. ↑ Muṣṭafawī, al-Taḥqīq, under the entry 'asara.
  4. ↑ al-Zuḥaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuh, 1418 AH, vol. 8, p. 5910; Faḍl Allāh, Kitāb al-Jihād, 1418 AH, p. 304; Anṣārī, al-Mawsūʿat al-Fiqhiyyat al-Muyassara, 1418 AH, vol. 2, pp. 154-155; Aḥmadī Miyānjī, al-Asīr fī al-Islām, 1411 AH, p. 56.
  5. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-Kalām, Dār Iḥyā' al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, vol. 21, pp. 122-126; Zuḥaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuh, 1418 AH, vol. 8, pp. 5910, 5917; Faḍl Allāh, Kitāb al-Jihād, 1418 AH, p. 304.
  6. ↑ Ṭabāṭabā'ī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 18, p. 225; Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 2, p. 611; vol. 3, p. 137; Fakhr al-Rāzī, al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr, 1420 AH, vol. 28, p. 45.
  7. ↑ Ḍiyā'ī Beygdilī, "Ḥuqūq-i Jang wa Raftār bā Asīrān", p. 159.
  8. ↑ Faḍā'ilī, "Uṣūl-i Ḥākim bar Raftār bā Qurbāniyān-i Mukhāṣamāt-i Musallaḥānih ...", p. 111; Ḍiyā'ī Beygdilī, "Ḥuqūq-i Jang wa Raftār bā Asīrān", p. 161; Parwīn and Zarshigī, "Taḥlīl-i Ḥuqūq-i Asīrān-i Jangī az Manẓar-i Islām wa Fuqahā-yi Musulmān", p. 11.
  9. ↑ Qur'an 2:85.
  10. ↑ Qur'an 8:67, 70.
  11. ↑ Qur'an 33:26.
  12. ↑ Qur'an 76:8.
  13. ↑ Aḥmadī Miyānjī, al-Asīr fī al-Islām, 1411 AH, p. 56.
  14. ↑ Qur'an 47:4.
  15. ↑ group of writers, Islām wa Asīr, Zamzam-i Hidāyat, p. 13.
  16. ↑ Qur'an 4:89-90; Qur'an 9:5.
  17. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 606.
  18. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 606.
  19. ↑ Ṭabāṭabā'ī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 18, p. 225.
  20. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1371 Sh, vol. 7, p. 244.
  21. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1371 Sh, vol. 7, p. 247.
  22. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 607.
  23. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 607.
  24. ↑ Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 3, p. 137; Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 607.
  25. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Muntahā al-Maṭlab, 1412 AH, vol. 14, p. 203; Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-Afhām, 1413 AH, vol. 3, p. 39.
  26. ↑ Fakhr al-Rāzī, al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr, 1413 AH, vol. 28, p. 45; Ṣādiqī Tihrānī, al-Furqān, vol. 26-27, p. 89; Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 608.
  27. ↑ Ṭabāṭabā'ī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 9, p. 151.
  28. ↑ Ṭabāṭabā'ī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 9, p. 269.
  29. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 609.
  30. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 35.
  31. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Muntahā al-Maṭlab, 1412 AH, vol. 14, p. 241.
  32. ↑ Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 10, p. 617; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 20, pp. 126-127.
  33. ↑ Ṭabarī, Dalā'il al-Imāma, 1413 AH, p. 194.
  34. ↑ Ṣādiqī, "Asārat", p. 610.
  35. ↑ Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 9, pp. 146-147.
  36. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-Fuqahā, 1414 AH, vol. 9, p. 424.
  37. ↑ Ibn Ḥayyūn, Da'ā'im al-Islām, 1385 AH, vol. 1, p. 277.
  38. ↑ Fakhr al-Rāzī, al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr, 1420 AH, vol. 28, p. 39.
  39. ↑ Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 9, p. 186; al-Zuḥaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuh, 1418 AH, vol. 8, p. 5917.
  40. ↑ Dhahabī, Tārīkh al-Islām, 1409 AH, vol. 2, pp. 119-120.
  41. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-Aḥkām al-Sharʿiyya, 1420 AH, vol. 2, pp. 162-163; group of writers, Islām wa Asīr, Zamzam-i Hidāyat, p. 16.
  42. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-Aḥkām al-Sharʿiyya, 1420 AH, vol. 2, pp. 162-163; group of writers, Islām wa Asīr, Zamzam-i Hidāyat, p. 18.
  43. ↑ Ṭabarsī, Majma' al-Bayān, 1372 Sh, vol. 4, p. 860.
  44. ↑ Ṭabarī, Jāmi' al-Bayān, 1412 AH, vol. 10, p. 36.
  45. ↑ al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, al-Irshād, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 98.
  46. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 34.
  47. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 34.
  48. ↑ "Kitāb-shināsī-yi Sar-nevesht-i Asīr dar Islām", site of the Organization for Researching and Composing University Textbooks in the Humanities (SAMT).
  49. ↑ Aḥmadī Miyānjī, al-Asīr fī al-Islām, 1411 AH, introduction by the publisher, p. 4.

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