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Draft:Khuzāʿa Tribe

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Khuzā'a (Arabic: خزاعة) is a prominent Arab tribe that traces its lineage to 'Amr b. Luhayy. Scholarly opinion is divided regarding the lineage of 'Amr b. Luhayy; some genealogists categorize him among the Adnanite tribes, while others attribute him to the Qahtanites. According to historians, the Khuza'a, led by 'Amr b. Muzayqiya', migrated to the northern Arabian Peninsula following the collapse of the Ma'rib Dam and settled in the vicinity of Mecca. The precise dating of this migration remains uncertain, though some attribute it to the era between the appearance of Prophet Jesus (a) and the bi'tha of the Prophet of Islam (s), or specifically to the 4th and 5th centuries CE.

Prior to the advent of Islam, the Khuza'a assumed custodianship of the Ka'ba after expelling the Jurhumites from Mecca. 'Amr b. Luhayy, the chieftain of Khuza'a, propagated idolatry throughout the Arabian Peninsula and instituted new religious traditions. The tribe held various responsibilities in Mecca, including the supervision of Hajj and arbitration in the market of 'Ukaz. Historians estimate their rule over Mecca lasted between 300 and 500 years.

During the Age of Ignorance (Jahiliyya), Khuza'a, alongside the tribe of Quraysh and Kinana, were classified among the Hums tribes and established a pact of cooperation with the Quraysh. During the attack of Abraha on Mecca, the Khuza'a, joined by other Arab tribes and the Quraysh, initially resolved to confront Abraha's army; however, upon realizing they lacked the military capacity to withstand such a massive force, they withdrew. Furthermore, the Khuza'a held Prophet Muhammad (s) in high trust due to their kinship with his maternal grandfather in Tihama.

In the time of the Prophet (s), the Banu Mustaliq clan of Khuza'a opposed the rise of Islam and were subsequently defeated. Following the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, the Khuza'a formally allied themselves with the Prophet (s). They played an active role in the Conquest of Mecca, during which the Prophet (s) accorded them special honor. During the caliphate of Imam Ali (a), the Khuza'a fought alongside him in the battles of Jamal and Siffin. In subsequent years, the tribe was instrumental in various political and military shifts, such as the resistance against the raids of Busr b. Artat and the Abbasid revolution.

Prominent figures from the Khuza'a tribe include companions, successors, scholars, poets, literati, and commanders. Notable examples are Sulayman b. Surad al-Khuza'i; Di'bil al-Khuza'i, the renowned Shi'i poet; and Budayl b. Warqa' alongside his son 'Abd Allah b. Budayl, both of whom were esteemed companions of the Prophet (s) and supporters of Imam Ali (a).

Lineage and Naming

The Khuza'a is one of the expansive and renowned Arab tribes tracing its lineage to 'Amr b. Luhayy ('Amir b. Rabi'a) b. Haritha b. 'Amr b. Muzayqiya' b. 'Amir b. Ma' al-Sama' b. Haritha.[1] There is significant disagreement regarding the origin and lineage of 'Amr b. Luhayy; some attribute him to the Mudar tribe (of the Adnanites), while others link him to the Azd tribe (of the Qahtanites).[2] The progeny of 'Amr b. Luhayy[3] included Ka'b, 'Awf, Mulaylih,[4] 'Adiyy,[5] and Sa'd.[6] From these lines, various clans of the Khuza'a were formed, such as Banu Salul, Banu Qumayr, Banu Hulayl, Banu Datir, Banu Kulayb,[7] Banu Hizmir b. Salul, and Banu Mustaliq.[8]

The etymology of "Khuza'a" derives from the meaning "to remain behind" or "to separate from others."[9] Following the collapse of the Ma'rib Dam in Yemen and the subsequent Arim Flood, Yemeni tribes—including the Khuza'a led by 'Amr b. Muzayqiya'—migrated toward the northern Arabian Peninsula. The Khuza'a settled near Mecca in a region known as Marr or Marr al-Zahran, thereby separating themselves from other Yemeni tribes. While the exact date of this migration is unknown,[10] some narratives place it between the time of Prophet Jesus (a) and the bi'tha of the Prophet of Islam (s),[11] or during the reign of 'Amr b. Tubba' in the 4th and 5th centuries CE.[12]

Presence in Mecca

Historians record that prior to Islam, the Jurhumites dominated Mecca and held administration over the Ka'ba. However, as a consequence of the oppression and corruption they perpetrated within the Sanctuary (Haram), Banu Bakr b. 'Abd Manat and Ghubshan—branches of the Khuza'a—resolved to end Jurhumite dominance. Through warfare, they expelled the Jurhumites from Mecca and seized the administration of the Ka'ba for themselves.[13] 'Amr b. Luhayy, the chief of Khuza'a, decreed that any Jurhumite approaching the Sanctuary be killed.[14] These events occurred approximately between 175 and 210 CE.[15] Following this victory, the descendants of Prophet Ishmael (a) requested permission from the Khuza'a to reside in Mecca, which was granted.[16]

'Amr b. Luhayy, having become the leader of the Khuza'a tribe and Mecca, was the first to alter the monotheistic religion of Abraham. He popularized idolatry in the Arabian Peninsula and established heretical traditions that were later abolished by Islam.[17]

Upon establishing dominance over Mecca, the Khuza'a were the first to organize the affairs of the city and the Hejaz. They allocated responsibilities among tribal elders, including ifta' (issuing legal opinions), supervision of Hajj rituals, arbitration in the market of 'Ukaz, oversight of pilgrim movements from Arafat and Mina, and the management of caravans and commerce.[18] According to various accounts,[19] the Khuza'a ruled Mecca for approximately 300 to 500 years.[20] During this era, they defended the Ka'ba against encroachment and theft, notably becoming the first to resist the attempts of the Tubba' kings to destroy the sanctuary.[21] In the pre-Islamic period, the Khuza'a and other Arab tribes worshipped idols such as Lat, 'Uzza,[22] Isaf, Na'ila, and Manat.[23] The "Banu Mulayh" branch of the Khuza'a was also known to worship Jinn.[24]

Handover of the Responsibility of Maintenance, Supervision, and Oversight of the Ka'ba

Historians note that the supervision of the Ka'ba was a hereditary privilege among the elders of Khuza'a, eventually passing to Hulayl b. Hubshiyya (or Habashiyya).[25] Reports indicate that Hulayl had a son named Muhtarish (or Mukhtarish), known as Abu Ghubshan, who sold or transferred the custodianship and keys of the Ka'ba to Qusayy b. Kilab, the fifth grandfather of the Prophet of Islam (s). This marked the end of Khuza'a's rule over Mecca, leading to their expulsion.[26]

Following their defeat by Qusayy and subsequent expulsion, the Khuza'a resided in the outskirts of Mecca for a time. However, an outbreak of disease decimated their numbers,[27] forcing the survivors to leave the region.[28] Nevertheless, sources such as Azraqi state that Khuza'a were still living in the outskirts of Mecca during his time (mid-3rd century AH).[29] Most historians believe that Qusayy's takeover of Mecca and the expulsion of the Khuza'a occurred during the reign of Mundhir I b. Nu'man in Hira and the Sassanid King Bahram Gur, circa 435 to 440 CE.[30]

The Days of Jahiliyya

During the Age of Ignorance, the Khuza'a, along with the Quraysh and Kinana, were considered among the "Hums" (people of the Sanctuary), who were accorded specific privileges during the Hajj season.[31] Certain branches of the Khuza'a joined a coalition of tribes known as the Ahabish, forming a pact of friendship and alliance with Muttalib b. 'Abd Manaf and the tribe of Quraysh.[32] Furthermore, the Khuza'a and other tribes entered into a pact of mutual aid with Abd al-Muttalib, the chief of Quraysh and grandfather of the Prophet (s).[33] This agreement was suspended within the Ka'ba and honored for generations.[34]

During the attack of Abraha on Mecca, the Khuza'a, alongside other Arab tribes and the Quraysh, initially decided to confront Abraha's army; however, realizing the impossibility of facing such a massive force, they chose to withdraw.[35] Additionally, as Hubbi al-Khuza'i was one of the maternal grandmothers of the Prophet of Islam (s), a hadith attributed to Prophet Muhammad (s) states: "He (the Prophet) is from Khuza'a and Khuza'a is from him."[36] Consequently, the Khuza'ites in Tihama, whether believer or disbeliever, regarded the Prophet (s) as a confidant, withholding no intelligence from him.[37]

Time of the Prophet (s)

In Sha'ban of the 5th or 6th year AH, the Banu Mustaliq, a clan of the Khuza'a led by Haritha b. Abi Dirar, fought against the Prophet (s) at the waters of Muraysi' and were defeated. During this conflict, Juwayriyya, the daughter of Haritha, was captured; the Prophet (s) later freed and married her.[38] In the 6th year AH, under the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, the Khuza'a allied themselves with the Prophet (s), while the Banu Bakr allied with the Quraysh.[39]

In the 8th year AH, the Dayl clan of Banu Bakr, supported by the Quraysh, attacked the Khuza'ites, killing several of them while the survivors sought refuge in Mecca. This aggression constituted a violation of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, prompting the Khuza'a to seek aid from the Prophet (s) by invoking their ancient pacts.[40] This breach of the treaty precipitated the Conquest of Mecca, during which the Khuza'a marched under three flags; notably, Abu Shurayh al-Ka'bi al-Khuza'i bore one of them.[41] The Prophet (s) demonstrated special respect for the Khuza'a during the conquest, designating them as emigrants (Muhajirun) and granting them a written decree.[42]

In the Time of Imam Ali (a) and the Caliphs

Historians report that during the Battle of Jamal, the Khuza'a tribe fractured into two factions: one supporting Imam Ali (a)[43] and the other supporting A'isha.[44] 'Amr b. Hamiq served as the commander of the Khuza'a infantry in Imam Ali's (a) army.[45] In the Battle of Siffin (37 AH), numerous Khuza'ites fought alongside Imam Ali (a); among them, 'Abd Allah b. Budayl and Sulayman b. Surad al-Khuza'i commanded infantry units, and several attained martyrdom.[46] In the year 40 AH, during the raid of Busr b. Artat on Medina, many Khuza'ites were killed.[47] The tribe also participated in the uprising of Hujr b. 'Adiyy (51 AH)[48] and the attack of Abu Hamza the Kharijite on Medina in 130 AH, an event which led the Quraysh to accuse them of collusion with the Khawarij.[49]

Historical records indicate that 'Umar personally managed the registry and affairs of the Khuza'a at their settlement in Qudayd, and tribe members referred directly to him.[50] It is said that in the year 35 AH, the Khuza'a joined other Arab tribes in the revolt against 'Uthman that resulted in his assassination.[51] Following the rise of Abu Muslim in Khorasan (129 AH), the Khuza'a were among the earliest cohorts to answer his call to support the Abbasids. Many Khuza'ites are mentioned among the *naqibs* (chiefs) and Abbasid *da'is* (missionaries) in Khorasan, including Sulayman b. Kathir and Malik b. al-Haytham.[52]

Famous Members

Many individuals from the Khuza'a tribe achieved renown as companions, successors, scholars, poets, literati, and commanders. Notable figures include:

  • 'Atika daughter of Khalid b. Khulayf, known as Umm Ma'bad al-Khuza'i, a companion.[53]
  • Her husband Aktham b. Jawn al-Khuza'i, a companion.[54]
  • Kurz b. 'Alqama b. Hilal al-Khuza'i, who tracked the Prophet's footprints to the cave during the migration of the Messenger of God (s).[55]
  • Budayl b. Warqa' and his son 'Abd Allah b. Budayl, companions of the Prophet (s) and Imam Ali (a).[56]
  • Sulayman b. Surad al-Khuza'i
  • 'Amr b. Hamiq al-Khuza'i, a companion of the Prophet (s) and Imam Ali (a).
  • Abu l-Shis Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah b. Razin al-Khuza'i, an Arab poet and kinsman of Di'bil.
  • Di'bil al-Khuza'i, a Shi'i poet.
  • Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khuza'i (d. 231 AH), a hadith scholar and Baghdad notable; he was the grandson of Malik b. al-Haytham (one of the first *naqibs* of the Abbasid call) and revolted against the Abbasid caliph al-Wathiq.[57]
  • Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Rahman, known as Shaykh al-Khuza'i (d. 329 AH), who led a revolt in Andalusia against the caliph 'Abd al-Rahman al-Nasir.[58]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, p. 439; Ibn Qutayba, Al-Maʿārif, 1992, p. 108.
  2. ↑ See: Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Al-Inbāh ʿalā qabāʾil al-ruwāt, 1405 AH, pp. 81-82; Al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣār, 1423 AH, vol. 4, p. 255; Al-Qalqashandī, Qalāʾid al-jumān, 1402 AH, p. 98.
  3. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, p. 440; Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿArab, 1982, pp. 235, 467-468; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Al-Muqtaḍab min kitāb jamharat al-nasab, 1987, pp. 230-231.
  4. ↑ From Tumāḍir, daughter of Ḥāritha b. Thaʿlaba b. Dūdān b. Asad.
  5. ↑ From Ruḥm, daughter of Kāhil b. Asad.
  6. ↑ From ʿAmra, daughter of Saʿd b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Bajalī, known as Umm Khārija, who was legendary for the speed and frequency of her marriages among the Arabs of the Jāhiliyya.
  7. ↑ All four clans attributed to Ḥubshiyya b. Salūl.
  8. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, pp. 440-456; Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿArab, 1982, pp. 235-236; Kaḥḥāla, Muʿjam qabāʾil al-ʿArab, 1402 AH, vol. 1, p. 26.
  9. ↑ Al-Ḥāzimī al-Hamadānī, Kitāb ʿujālat al-mubtadī, 1965, p. 54.
  10. ↑ Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 1, pp. 13-14, 94; Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 12; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-buldān, under "Mārib" and "Marr"; Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, under "kh-z-ʿ" and "ḍ-l-l".
  11. ↑ Qazwīnī, Āthār al-bilād, 1998, p. 41.
  12. ↑ Ibn Qutayba, Al-Maʿārif, 1992, pp. 633-634.
  13. ↑ Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 1, p. 119; Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 90, vol. 2, p. 41; Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, pp. 12-13; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-buldān, under "Mārib," "Manāt," and "Wadd"; Ibn Qutayba, Al-Maʿārif, 1992, p. 640; Ibn al-Kalbī, Kitāb al-aṣnām, 2000, p. 8.
  14. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 96; Bakrī, Kitāb al-masālik wa l-mamālik, 1992, vol. 1, p. 385.
  15. ↑ Ḥammūr, Mawāsim al-ʿArab, 1427 AH, vol. 1, pp. 204, 619; Abū l-Fidāʾ, Al-Mukhtaṣar fī akhbār al-bashar, 1417 AH, vol. 1, part 1, p. 76; Shahrastānī, Al-Milal wa l-niḥal, Dar al-Ma'rifa, vol. 2, p. 233.
  16. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 96; Bakrī, Kitāb al-masālik wa l-mamālik, 1992, vol. 1, p. 385.
  17. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 96; Bakrī, Kitāb al-masālik wa l-mamālik, 1992, vol. 1, p. 385.
  18. ↑ Ḥammūr, Mawāsim al-ʿArab, 1427 AH, vol. 1, pp. 193-194.
  19. ↑ Masʿūdī, Murūj al-dhahab, 1409 AH, vol. 2, p. 176.
  20. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 101.
  21. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, pp. 102-103.
  22. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 126; Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-buldān, under "Al-Lāt".
  23. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Kitāb al-aṣnām, 2000, pp. 9-14.
  24. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Kitāb al-aṣnām, 2000, p. 34.
  25. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, pp. 440-441; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 1, pp. 122-123.
  26. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, p. 443; Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿArab, 1982, p. 236; Al-Qalqashandī, Qalāʾid al-jumān, 1402 AH, pp. 108-109; for other reports see Quṣayy b. Kilāb.
  27. ↑ Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 56.
  28. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 2, p. 256.
  29. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 2, p. 107.
  30. ↑ See: Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-buldān, under "Makka"; ʿAlī, Al-Mufaṣṣal fī tārīkh al-ʿArab qabl al-Islām, 1976, vol. 4, p. 56; Ḥammūr, Mawāsim al-ʿArab, 1427 AH, vol. 1, pp. 203-204.
  31. ↑ Ibn Isḥāq, Al-Siyar wa l-maghāzī, 1410 AH, p. 120; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 1, pp. 211-212.
  32. ↑ Ibn Ḥabīb, Kitāb al-muḥabbar, Beirut, p. 246; Ibn Qutayba, Al-Maʿārif, 1992, p. 616; Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 112.
  33. ↑ Wāqidī, Kitāb al-maghāzī, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 781; Ibn Ḥabīb, Kitāb al-munammaq, 1405 AH, pp. 86-90.
  34. ↑ Ibn Ḥabīb, Kitāb al-muḥabbar, Beirut, p. 475; Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, pp. 79-80; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 2, pp. 250-251.
  35. ↑ Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, 1403 AH, vol. 1, p. 143.
  36. ↑ See: Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Al-Istīʿāb, 1410 AH, vol. 1, p. 170; Ibn al-Athīr, Usd al-ghāba, 1409 AH, vol. 1, p. 223.
  37. ↑ Wāqidī, Kitāb al-maghāzī, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 593; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 3, p. 108; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 2, p. 535.
  38. ↑ Wāqidī, Kitāb al-maghāzī, 1404 AH, vol. 1, pp. 404-412; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 3, p. 302, pp. 307-308, vol. 4, p. 295.
  39. ↑ Wāqidī, Kitāb al-maghāzī, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 612; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 3, p. 332, vol. 4, pp. 31-32; Balādhurī, Futūḥ al-buldān, 1992, p. 35; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 2, p. 635.
  40. ↑ Wāqidī, Kitāb al-maghāzī, 1404 AH, vol. 2, pp. 780-789; Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 4, pp. 31-33, 36-37; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 3, pp. 44-45.
  41. ↑ Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya, 1355 AH, vol. 4, p. 36; Ibn Saʿd, Al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, 1410 AH, vol. 4, p. 295; Masʿūdī, Al-Tanbīh wa l-ishrāf, Dar al-Sawi, p. 266.
  42. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Al-Inbāh ʿalā qabāʾil al-ruwāt, 1405 AH, p. 85.
  43. ↑ Dīnawarī, Al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, 1960, p. 146; Mufīd, Al-Jamal wa l-nuṣra, 1371 Sh, p. 320.
  44. ↑ Dīnawarī, Al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, 1960, p. 147.
  45. ↑ Dīnawarī, Al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, 1960, p. 146; Mufīd, Al-Jamal wa l-nuṣra, 1371 Sh, p. 320.
  46. ↑ Ibn Sayyār al-Minqarī, Waqʿat Ṣiffīn, 1404 AH, pp. 205, 233; Khalīfa b. Khayyāṭ, Tārīkh Khalīfa b. Khayyāṭ, 1415 AH, p. 117; Dīnawarī, Al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, 1960, p. 171; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 5, pp. 15, 24; Masʿūdī, Murūj al-dhahab, 1409 AH, vol. 3, pp. 132, 135.
  47. ↑ Masʿūdī, Murūj al-dhahab, 1409 AH, vol. 3, p. 211.
  48. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 5, p. 261.
  49. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 7, pp. 393-395.
  50. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, Al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, 1410 AH, vol. 3, p. 298; Balādhurī, Futūḥ al-buldān, 1992, p. 452.
  51. ↑ Ibn Shabba al-Numayrī, Kitāb tārīkh al-Madīna al-Munawwara, vol. 4, p. 1281; Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, Al-ʿIqd al-farīd, 1404 AH, vol. 5, p. 51.
  52. ↑ Akhbār al-dawla al-ʿAbbāsiyya, pp. 202, 216-223, 274.
  53. ↑ Ibn Ḥabīb, Kitāb al-muḥabbar, Beirut, p. 410.
  54. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr, Usd al-ghāba, 1409 AH, vol. 1, p. 133.
  55. ↑ Ibn al-Kalbī, Nasab Maʿadd wa l-Yaman al-kabīr, 1408 AH, vol. 2, p. 444.
  56. ↑ Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿArab, 1982, p. 239; Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Al-Istīʿāb, 1410 AH, vol. 1, p. 150.
  57. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, 1387 AH, vol. 9, pp. 135-138; Akhbār al-dawla al-ʿAbbāsiyya, p. 202, 216.
  58. ↑ Ibn Ḥayyān, Al-Muqtabas, 1937, vol. 3, pp. 21-22 and vol. 5, pp. 190, 197.

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