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Kahāna (Arabic: کهانة), or Soothsaying, denotes the practice of predicting the unseen based on a claimed connection with Jinn and devils. These reports are believed to encompass past and future events, as well as terrestrial and celestial information. Following the prophetic mission, and the consequent barring of devils from the heavens, such reports became limited exclusively to terrestrial affairs. Before Islam, soothsaying was considered a common discipline among the Arabs, utilized to resolve difficulties, settle disputes, and locate stolen property.

Islam adopted a stern stance against soothsaying, and numerous traditions have been recorded regarding its prohibition. Soothsaying was among the accusations leveled by the polytheists of Mecca against the Prophet Muhammad (s) after they despaired of countering the Qur'an. The Qur'an addresses this subject twice, explicitly declaring the Prophet (s) innocent of this charge.

Jurists have deemed soothsaying to be forbidden, and a claim of consensus exists regarding this ruling; they further consider learning, teaching, and earning income through this practice to be illicit. According to some researchers, the prohibition applies even when soothsaying is employed to solve crimes or uncover sin, as pursuing truth through non-Shari'a means is forbidden.

Semantics

Soothsaying is defined as the articulation of news regarding the unseen, predicated on a claim of connection with supernatural beings.[1] Scholarly examinations of the definitions proposed for soothsaying highlight several key elements:

First is the nature of the soothsayer's interaction with supernatural beings, with emphasis placed on either friendship with[2] or the subjugation of Jinn[3] by the practitioner; though some definitions also allude to the soothsayer's physiognomy and shrewdness.[4].[5] Fundamentally, the employment of Jinn,[6] whether achieved through asceticism[7] or the recitation of specific incantations[8] to acquire news of the unseen, is central to the concept of soothsaying.[9]

Conversely, some assert that the soothsayer's claim to unseen news via connection with Jinn is merely an illusion[10] or, at most, conjecture.[11] In any event, the soothsayer's connection is believed to involve not only Jinn but also devils.[12]

In his work al-Mufradat, Raghib al-Isfahani distinguishes the soothsayer (kahin) from the diviner ('Arraf), positing that the kahin reports on the past while the Arraf predicts the future.[13] However, numerous sources characterize soothsaying solely as the reporting of future events.[14] Others broaden the scope, suggesting the soothsayer's knowledge encompasses both past and future domains,[15] as well as celestial and terrestrial news.[16]

Another critical aspect in defining soothsaying concerns the transformations that occurred following the Prophetic Mission. Some scholars hold that prior to Islam, soothsayers could engage in eavesdropping[17] through devils to obtain news from the heavens.[18] However, with the closing of the devils' path of infiltration into the heavens,[19] the information available to soothsayers became restricted solely to terrestrial matters[20] obtained through Jinn.[21]

Connection with Magic

Scholars have debated the relationship between magic and soothsaying. Some view them as similar disciplines,[22] while others consider the domain of soothsaying to be more restricted than that of magic[23] or classify it as a sub-category of magic.[24] Ibn Manzur, the author of Lisan al-'Arab, categorizes divination ('arafa) and astrology (tanjim) as branches of soothsaying.[25]

Azlam (divining arrows) was among the tools employed by the Arabs of Jahiliyya for soothsaying. Fabricated by the soothsayers, these tools were utilized in idol temples primarily for consultation, dispute resolution, and determining genealogy.[26]

Soothsaying Before Islam

Historical accounts of soothsaying trace back to the era of Prophet Moses (a). Some traditions suggest that Prophet Moses (a) was the first to utilize the science of soothsaying, while his brother Aaron is regarded by some as the first soothsayer in history.[27] Korah is also counted among those who employed soothsaying to oppose Prophet Moses (a).[28]

Soothsaying was exceedingly prevalent among the Arabs before Islam,[29] to the extent that it was considered one of the exclusive sciences of the pre-Islamic Arabs, alongside fortune-telling and geomancy.[30] Practitioners of this discipline, known as "Kahana" (soothsayers),[31] claimed connections with Jinn[32] and were consulted regarding various problems and disputes.[33] Skilled soothsayers were found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring lands.[34] Figures such as Shiqq,[35] Satih,[36] the diviner of Juhayna (Hazi Juhayna), and 'Uzza Salama[37] were renowned soothsayers whose narratives are recorded in historical texts.[38] However, this prevalence was short-lived, as Islam sought to dismantle the practice of soothsaying.[39]

Status of Soothsaying in Islam

Islam vigorously opposed soothsaying; the Prophet of Islam (s) explicitly equated consulting and accepting the judgment of soothsayers with disbelief.[40] Similarly, Imam Ali (a), identifying soothsaying with magic, asserted that the status of soothsayers is akin to that of disbelievers in Hell.[41] Consequently, in addition to prohibiting consultation with soothsayers, he warned against related practices such as Physiognomy.[42] In this context, al-Shaykh al-Saduq in his book al-Khisal cites a tradition from Imam al-Sadiq (a) stating that practicing soothsaying or consulting soothsayers is tantamount to disavowing the religion of the Prophet (s),[43] and he enumerates soothsayers among the cursed.[44]

Beyond the prohibition, traditions also elaborate on other dimensions of this subject. For instance, a hadith from Imam al-Sadiq (a) details the soothsayer's method of divination; he explains that soothsayers, possessing high intelligence, mental agility, and shrewdness—aided by spiritual asceticism and psychic suggestions—could reveal certain information, occasionally enlisting the aid of devils in this endeavor.[45]

The tradition further elucidates the connection between soothsayers and devils, noting that prior to the prophetic mission of the Prophet (s), devils could ascend to the heavens to steal divine news via eavesdropping and transfer it to the soothsayer. The soothsayer would then amalgamate truth with falsehood by embellishing the information. Following the closing of the devils' path of infiltration upon the Prophet's mission (s), the news available to soothsayers was restricted to terrestrial affairs—such as identifying a thief or a murderer—though they continued to mix truth with fabrication.[46]

Jurisprudential Ruling

Jurists have unanimously[47] ruled soothsaying to be haram,[48] and a claim of consensus exists on this matter.[49] While some scholars deem any assistance derived from soothsaying to be forbidden,[50] certain fatwas suggest that only the act of soothsaying itself is prohibited, whereas teaching or learning it may not fall within the scope of the prohibition.[51] Nevertheless, al-Allama al-Hilli and others maintain that learning, teaching, and earning income from the practice are also forbidden.[52]

A soothsayer faces execution should they refuse to express repentance and regret.[53] Although imprisonment is not explicitly prescribed in the edicts, some scholars argue that a soothsayer may deserve discretionary punishment for committing a forbidden act, which could result in a sentence of discretionary imprisonment.[54] The rationale for the haram status and the severity of the measures against soothsaying is attributed either to explicit and famous traditions[55] [56]—the multiplicity of which indicates its abhorrence[57]—or to its inclusion within the general prohibition against reporting from the unseen, placing soothsaying alongside magic, physiognomy, and astrology.[58]

According to some researchers, the prohibition applies even when soothsaying is employed to solve crimes or uncover sin, as pursuing truth through non-Shari'a means is illicit. Therefore, practices such as Mesmerism and Hypnotism, despite potentially revealing certain realities, remain forbidden.[59]

Accusation against the Prophet (s)

Among the charges leveled by the polytheists against the Prophet (s) in Mecca was the accusation of soothsaying,[60] a claim first instigated by Uqba b. Abi Mu'ayt[61] or Shayba b. Rabi'a.[62] The Qur'an directly addresses this accusation in two verses.[63] In Qur'an 52:29, God declares His Prophet (s) to be under His mercy and absolves him of the slander of being a soothsayer or possessed.[64][65] Some scholars suggest this accusation arose because the structure and rhythmic cadence of the revelation bore some resemblance to the rhymed prose employed by the soothsayers and sorcerers of that era, who delivered their prophecies in a rhythmic style.[66]

Prophet Muhammad (s) responded with a challenge, asking them to produce something similar if they were able. Despite the presence of skilled sorcerers and soothsayers in Arabia at the time, they were unable to counter the Qur'an. They ultimately resorted to enticing the Prophet (s) with financial offers.[67]

Some sources posit that the existence of soothsaying before Islam played a role in reporting the birth, finality of prophethood, and miracles of the Prophet (s);[68] however, following the prophetic mission, soothsayers were deprived of access to news of the unseen.[69]

Notes

  1. ↑ Tabrīzī, Taḥlīl al-kalām, p. 193.
  2. ↑ Ḥillī, al-Tanqīḥ al-rāʾiʿ, vol. 2, p. 13; ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Qawāʿid al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 9; Thaʿlabī, al-Kashf wa-l-bayān, vol. 9, p. 130.
  3. ↑ Tabrīzī, Taḥlīl al-kalām, p. 193.
  4. ↑ Khurāsānī, Sharḥ-i tabṣirat al-mutaʿallimīn, vol. 1, p. 375.
  5. ↑ A group of researchers, quoting Fakhr al-Razi, have divided soothsaying into two types: acquired (iktisābī) and non-acquired. Acquired: that which they attain through the help of certain actions; non-acquired: that which exists inherently in some humans. (See: Qannūjī al-Bukhārī, Abjad al-ʿulūm, vol. 2, p. 374.)
  6. ↑ Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 9, p. 253.
  7. ↑ Khurāsānī, Sharḥ-i tabṣirat al-mutaʿallimīn, vol. 1, p. 375.
  8. ↑ Tabrīzī, Taḥlīl al-kalām, p. 193.
  9. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 261.
  10. ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, vol. 9, p. 412; Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 9, p. 253.
  11. ↑ Ālūsī, Rūḥ al-maʿānī, vol. 14, p. 36.
  12. ↑ Ṭabasī, Mawārid al-sijn, p. 194; Khūʾī, Miṣbāḥ al-faqāha, vol. 1, p. 417; Khurāsānī, Sharḥ-i tabṣirat al-mutaʿallimīn, vol. 1, p. 375.
  13. ↑ Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 728.
  14. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 22, p. 89; Shaykh al-Anṣārī, Kitāb al-Makāsib, vol. 2, p. 33; Qurṭubī, al-Jāmiʿ li-aḥkām al-Qurʾān, vol. 17, p. 71; Ibn al-Jawzī, Zād al-masīr, vol. 4, p. 179.
  15. ↑ Khūʾī, Miṣbāḥ al-faqāha, vol. 1, p. 417; Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 728.
  16. ↑ Ṭabasī, Mawārid al-sijn, p. 194.
  17. ↑ ʿĀmilī, Miftāḥ al-karāma, vol. 12, p. 240.
  18. ↑ Tabrīzī, Taḥlīl al-kalām, p. 193.
  19. ↑ Qazvīnī, Yanābīʿ al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 324.
  20. ↑ Tabrīzī, Taḥlīl al-kalām, p. 193.
  21. ↑ Khūʾī, Miṣbāḥ al-faqāha, vol. 1, p. 417.
  22. ↑ Qarashī, Qāmūs-i Qurʾān, vol. 3, p. 237.
  23. ↑ Ḥāʾirī, Riyāḍ al-masāʾil, vol. 8, p. 167.
  24. ↑ Najafī, Aḥkām al-matājir al-muḥarrama, p. 205.
  25. ↑ Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, vol. 13, p. 363.
  26. ↑ Jamʿī az pazhūhishgarān, Farhang-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 374.
  27. ↑ Ṣadr, Mā warāʾ al-fiqh, vol. 3, p. 77.
  28. ↑ Qarashī, Qāmūs-i Qurʾān, vol. 5, p. 310.
  29. ↑ Waḥīd Khurāsānī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, Introduction, p. 58.
  30. ↑ ʿĀmilī, Miftāḥ al-karāma, vol. 12, p. 240.
  31. ↑ ʿĀmilī, Miftāḥ al-karāma, vol. 12, p. 239.
  32. ↑ Qarashī, Qāmūs-i Qurʾān, vol. 6, p. 165.
  33. ↑ Ibn Bābawayh, al-Khiṣāl, vol. 1, p. 72.
  34. ↑ Waḥīd Khurāsānī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, Introduction, p. 58.
  35. ↑ Tabari, Tarikh al-Tabari, vol. 2, p. 112.
  36. ↑ Tabari, Tarikh al-Tabari, vol. 2, p. 112; Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī, al-Imtāʿ wa-l-muʾānasa, p. 63.
  37. ↑ Jāḥiẓ, al-Bayān wa-l-tabyīn, vol. 1, p. 241.
  38. ↑ Tabari, Tarikh al-Tabari, vol. 2, p. 112; Dinawari, al-Akhbar al-tiwal, p. 54.
  39. ↑ Qazwīnī, Yanābīʿ al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 324; Zubayr b. Bakkār, al-Akhbār al-muwaffaqiyyāt, pp. 362-363.
  40. ↑ Quṭb al-Dīn al-Rāwandī, al-Kharāʾij wa-l-jarāʾiḥ, vol. 3, p. 1027.
  41. ↑ al-Sharīf al-Raḍī, Nahj al-balāgha, p. 105.
  42. ↑ Burūjirdī, Manābiʿ al-fiqh al-Shīʿa, vol. 22, p. 501.
  43. ↑ Ibn Bābawayh, al-Khiṣāl, vol. 1, p. 19.
  44. ↑ Ibn Bābawayh, al-Khiṣāl, vol. 1, p. 297; Qazwīnī, Yanābīʿ al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 326.
  45. ↑ Ṭabrisī, al-Iḥtijāj, vol. 2, p. 339.
  46. ↑ Ṭabarsī, al-Iḥtijāj, vol. 2, p. 339.
  47. ↑ Shaykh al-Anṣārī, Kitāb al-Makāsib, vol. 2, p. 37.
  48. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 22, p. 90.
  49. ↑ Najafī, Aḥkām al-matājir al-muḥarrama, p. 206.
  50. ↑ Jamʿī az pazhūhishgarān, Farhang-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 434.
  51. ↑ Jamʿī az muʾallifān, Majalla-yi Fiqh-i Ahl al-Bayt (a), vol. 49, p. 104.
  52. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 161; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 22, pp. 90-91; Shaykh al-Anṣārī, Ṣirāṭ al-najāt, p. 282.
  53. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, vol. 2, p. 261; Narāqī, Anīs al-tujjār, p. 51.
  54. ↑ Ṭabasī, Mawārid al-sijn, p. 196.
  55. ↑ Najafī, Aḥkām al-matājir al-muḥarrama, p. 206.
  56. ↑ Ḥāʾirī, Riyāḍ al-masāʾil, vol. 8, p. 167.
  57. ↑ Ṭabasī, Mawārid al-sijn, p. 196.
  58. ↑ Shaykh al-Anṣārī, Kitāb al-Makāsib, vol. 2, pp. 38-39.
  59. ↑ Ṭihrānī, Wilāyat-i faqīh dar ḥukūmat-i Islām, vol. 1, p. 122.
  60. ↑ Khurāsānī, Adwār-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 193; Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 22, p. 444.
  61. ↑ Khurāsānī, Adwār-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 193; Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 24, p. 478.
  62. ↑ Ālūsī, Rūḥ al-maʿānī, vol. 14, p. 36.
  63. ↑ Qur'an 52:29; Qur'an 69:42.
  64. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 22, p. 444; Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 4, p. 412.
  65. ↑ Some have interpreted "majnūn" (possessed), contrary to the common exegesis of "insane," as being Jinn-stricken and connected with Jinn. (Qirāʾatī, Tafsīr-i nūr, vol. 9, p. 289.)
  66. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 24, p. 478; Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 10, p. 525.
  67. ↑ Waḥīd Khurāsānī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, Introduction, p. 58.
  68. ↑ Qannūjī al-Bukhārī, Abjad al-ʿulūm, vol. 2, p. 374.
  69. ↑ Qannūjī al-Bukhārī, Abjad al-ʿulūm, vol. 2, p. 374.

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