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Quranic Transcription

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Kitābat al-Qurʾān (Quranic transcription) (Arabic: كتابة القرآن) refers to the writing and compilation of the Quran. The Prophet (s) emphasized the transcription of the Quran to preserve it from distortion. He commissioned certain companions, such as Imam 'Ali (a) and Zayd b. Thabit, with the task of writing it down. The earliest Quranic manuscripts (mushafs) were compiled by individuals including 'Ali b. Abi Talib (a), Zayd b. Thabit, 'Abd Allah b. Mas'ud, and Ubayy b. Ka'b. However, variations among different versions of the Quran led to disputes among people. Consequently, 'Uthman b. 'Affan established a council to standardize the Quran and provided a unified version. This compiled Quran was endorsed by the Shiite Imams.

In the early days of Islam, the Quran was written in a rudimentary script without diacritical marks or dots, which led to errors in recitation. For this reason, Abu l-Aswad al-Du'ali, Nasr b. 'Asim, and Khalil b. Ahmad al-Farahidi introduced diacritical and declension (i'rab) marks to the Quran, implementing symbols to simplify Quranic recitation.

The transcription of the Quran has been expressed through various arts, including calligraphy, illumination, page layout, and bookbinding, as Muslims strive to incorporate every element that enhances its aesthetic appeal. To this end, they developed distinct scripts, such as Thuluth, Naskh, Rayhani, and Nasta'liq. The Naskh script, due to its clarity, gained prominence in Quranic transcription and was established as the preferred script for this purpose.

Significance

The transcription of the Quran is a subject within Quranic sciences, where the history and methods of its writing and compilation are discussed. The transcription of the Quran is considered a key factor in preserving it from [[Integrity of the Qur'an |distortion]], which is why the Prophet (s) emphasized its importance. The manner of transcribing the Quran is recognized as influential in understanding the meanings of its verses. It has been noted that one of the reasons for multiple interpretations of Quranic verses was the limitations of early Islamic transcription methods.

According to scholars, writing in the Islamic world began with the transcription of the Quran. Due to the close connection between script and the recording of the Quran, calligraphy gained importance in the Islamic world. With the advent of Islam and the revelation of the Quran, writing and transcription became highly valued, as the Quran was the miracle of the Prophet (s), and its recitation and transcription were considered sacred duties.

History of Quranic Transcription

At the dawn of Islam, writing and literacy were not widespread among the Arabs of the Hijaz, with fewer than twenty individuals familiar with the art of writing. Consequently, the Prophet (s) employed these individuals to transcribe divine revelations and encouraged Muslims to learn writing and literacy. Alongside memorizing the Quran, the Prophet (s) underscored its transcription, assigning individuals such as 'Ali b. Abi Talib (a) and Zayd b. Thabit to write it down. They transcribed Quranic verses on materials such as animal hides, palm leaves, flat bones, and paper.

Early Quranic Manuscripts

Ibn al-Nadim, a fourth-century AH bibliographer, in his book al-Fihrist, identified Imam 'Ali's mushaf (Quranic manuscript) as the first complete compilation of the Quran. Following the Prophet's demise, Imam 'Ali (a) compiled the Quran in his home according to the order of revelation and presented it to the people and the companions. According to some hadiths, the occasions of revelation (sha'n al-nuzul) as well as abrogating (nasikh) and abrogated (mansukh) verses were noted in the margins of this mushaf. However, some companions did not accept this manuscript, which was why Imam 'Ali (a) to withdrew it from public access.

Following the Prophet's demise and the rejection of Imam 'Ali's mushaf, several companions, in addition to Zayd b. Thabit, undertook the compilation of the Quran. These included 'Abd Allah b. Mas'ud, Ubayy b. Ka'b, Miqdad b. Aswad, Salim (the emancipated slave of Abu Hudhayfa), Mu'adh b. Jabal, and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari.

Standardizing the Quranic Manuscripts

The companions had compiled various mushafs (Quranic manuscripts) for themselves, each differing slightly from the others. These variations in mushafs and recitations led to disagreements among the people. For this reason, 'Uthman, the third caliph, decided to standardize the mushafs. To this end, a committee of twelve companions, including Zayd b. Thabit, 'Abd Allah b. Zubayr, and 'Abd Allah b. 'Abbas, under the supervision of Ubayy b. Ka'b, compiled a unified Quran. The compiled Quran was endorsed by Imam 'Ali (a), who adhered to it during his caliphate. Subsequent Imams also confirmed the validity of 'Uthman's Quran and emphasized its preservation.

Widespread Transcription of the Quran

During the Safavid era in Iran and the Ottoman period in Turkey, the transcription of the Quran received significant attention. Qurans were written either as complete single volumes or in multi-volume sets of four, fifteen, thirty, or sixty parts. Over time, however, the practice shifted toward producing complete, single-volume Qurans. With the rise of the printing industry, printed Qurans became widespread, leading to a decline in the traditional practice of handwritten Quranic transcription.

Rasm al-Mushaf

Rasm al-Mushaf refers to the unique orthography of the Uthmanic mushaf. In this mushaf, Quranic words were written in a manner that deviates from standard writing conventions, such as writing الصلاة (al-salat, meaning prayer) as الصلوٰة and إبراهيم (Ibrahim) as ابرٰهــٖم. Six principles for Rasm al-Mushaf are noted: omission, addition, hamza, substitution (ibdal), connection (wasl), and separation (fasl), none of which align with standard writing rules. Some Quranic scholars consider the Uthmanic orthography so significant that any recitation conflicting with it should be corrected. Researchers attribute the divergence of Rasm al-Mushaf from standard writing conventions to factors such as errors by the scribes of revelation, the rudimentary nature of early Islamic script, and the influence of variations in Quranic recitations. Conversely, some Sunni scholars regard the Quranic orthography as tawqifi (divinely ordained), believing that the Prophet (s), through divine revelation, instructed the scribes on how to write the words of the Quran.

  • Regarding whether altering Rasm al-Mushaf is permissible, the following perspectives have been proposed:
  • Due to the divinely ordained (tawqifi) nature of Rasm al-Mushaf, writing the Quran in a different script is not permissible.
  • Although Rasm al-Mushaf is not tawqifi, it should remain unchanged to prevent further alterations to the Quran.
  • Adhering to Rasm al-Mushaf is not necessary, and the Quran may be written in a different script.
  • Given that contemporary individuals are unfamiliar with Rasm al-Mushaf and to prevent misrecitation, the Quran should be written in a way that ensures correct reading, thus it should not follow Rasm al-Mushaf. Nasir Makarim Shirazi, the author of Tafsir nimuna, considers altering Rasm al-Mushaf to be essential.

Developments of the Quranic Script

During the Prophet's lifetime, the Quran was written in the Ḥijazi script (resembling the Naskh script of the fifth century AH). With the establishment of the city of Kufa in 17 AH/638 and the prevalence of the Kufic script, Qurans, including the "master manuscripts" compiled during 'Uthman's era (from which scribes transcribed), were written in the Kufic script. The earliest written Qurans lacked diacritical and declension (i'rab) marks, which led to errors in recitation.

Abu l-Aswad al-Du'ali (d. 69 AH/688-9), under the guidance of Imam 'Ali (a), introduced declension or vowel marking to the Quran. However, instead of using elongated vowel signs, he used dots: a dot above a letter for fatha, a dot below for kasra, and a dot in front of the letter in a different color from the Quranic text for damma. After him, his student Nasr b. 'Asim (d. 89 AH/707-8) used dots to distinguish similar-looking undotted letters (such as ح, خ, and ج, which appear identical without dots). To avoid confusion with the dots Abu al-Aswad used for vowel signs, Nasr wrote these dots in the same color as the main text. Later, Khalil b. Ahmad al-Farahidi (d. 175 AH/791-2) replaced the dots used by Abu al-Aswad for vowel marking with the signs ـَـ (fatha), ـِـ (kasra), and ـُـ (damma), and introduced additional signs such as tashdid (gemination) and hamza to simplify Quranic recitation.

In the first century AH, Muslims paid special attention to the transcription of the Quran, striving to refine its writing methods. By the fourth century AH, Quranic calligraphy had diversified significantly, with over twenty distinct writing styles emerging across the Islamic world. This variety created challenges for scribes and readers alike. For this reason, Ibn Muqla (d. 328 AH/940) sought to standardize these styles, establishing principles for the six primary scripts used for Quranic transcription: 1. Thuluth, 2. Muhaqqaq, 3. Rayhani, 4. Naskh, 5. Tawqi', and 6. Ruqa'.

Arts and Transcription of the Quran

In the Islamic era, the transcription of the Quran extended beyond calligraphy to include other arts such as illumination (tadhhib), page layout, and bookbinding. Muslims utilized every element that enhanced the aesthetic quality of Quranic transcription, including illumination and page layout. According to scholars, the art of Quranic transcription is of great importance among other arts because it represents the divine revelation and includes religious concepts. Quranic transcription reached its pinnacle during the Ilkhanid period (seventh century AH), with Qurans from that era being highly valued for their calligraphy, illumination, and codicological significance.

Calligraphy

Ibn Muqla (d. 328 AH/940) developed the scripts of Thuluth, Muhaqqaq, Rayhani, Naskh, Tawqi', and Ruqa'. He designed the letterforms based on geometric principles, shaping them according to the concepts of surface (for elongated letters like alif and ba') and curve (for rounded letters like jim and nun). Following Ibn Muqla, Ibn al-Bawwab in the fifth century AH and later Yaqut al-Musta'simi in the seventh century AH elevated the Naskh script to its pinnacle and established it as the most suitable script for Quranic transcription. The Naskh script evolved into various styles, with the most prominent being the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian schools. During the Timurid period, significant advancements occurred in the art of calligraphy. In this era, the combination of Ruqa' and Tawqi' scripts gave rise to the Ta'liq script, and subsequently, the fusion of Naskh and Ta'liq led to the creation of the Nasta'liq script. Muslims in India transcribed the Quran in the Bihari (or Bahari) script, while in China, they used the Sini script (a distinctive variant of Naskh).

The Naskh script, due to its clarity, is of significance in the transcription of the Quran. A Quran transcribed by Yaqut al-Musta'simi in 669 AH/1270-1 has survived, written in three scripts: Thuluth, Naskh, and Rayhani. The Quran transcribed by Ahmad Nayrizi is considered the most renowned example of the Persian Naskh script. The Nasta'liq script is widely used in literary texts; however, due to the difficulty of adding vowel marks in this script, it is rarely used to transcribe a complete Quran. Mir 'Imad Hasani Qazwini transcribed Sura al-Fatiha in Nasta'liq, an work that gained widespread fame. During the Safavid era, Persian translations of the Quran were written in a narrow strip below the verses in the Nasta'liq script.

Illumination

Tadhhib or illumination refers to the art of decorating book pages or covers with gold and other colors. It is typically used to mark the beginnings of suras and sections (juz') of the Quran. This art developed alongside calligraphy, to the extent that Quranic calligraphers often undertook the illumination work as well. The earliest surviving examples of Quranic painting and illumination date back to the third century AH and later. These Qurans were often commissioned by the kings of the time. By the end of the sixth century and the beginning of the seventh century AH, Tabriz emerged as a major center for the art of tadhhib, giving rise to the Tabriz school of illumination during this period. The art of tadhhib flourished significantly during the Timurid era, largely due to the patronage of art-loving rulers.

Inscription Writing

Inscriptions (katiba) consist of Quranic verses and suras written in various forms on sacred sites such as the mihrabs, domes, and walls of mosques, as well as shrines. These inscriptions are crafted using scripts such as Kufic, Thuluth, Naskh, Nasta'liq, and Mu'alla, and are executed in techniques like tilework, brickwork, or stucco (render). Inscription writing flourished during the Timurid era and reached its peak during the Safavid period.

Bookbinding

Muslims employed the art of bookbinding to protect the Quran from damage. Like calligraphy, the art of bookbinding flourished significantly due to the sanctity of the Quran among Muslims. Early book covers were simple, but from the fourth century AH onward, geometric patterns such as circles and ovals were added to the center of the covers. Over time, covers were adorned with gilding and illumination. The decoration of leather covers gained particular importance during the Timurid era in Iran and the Mamluk period in Egypt, with the art of bookbinding reaching its zenith during the Timurid era.

The First Quranic Print

The Quran was first printed in 950 AH/1543-4 in Venice (known among Muslims as al-Bunduqiyya), but it was destroyed at the command of the church authorities. Subsequently, in 1104 AH/1692-3, Abraham Hinckelmann, a German orientalist, printed the Quran in Hamburg, Germany. The first Islamic printing of the Quran was carried out in 1200 AH/1785-6 by an individual named Mulla Uthman in St. Petersburg, Russia. Iran was the first Islamic state to produce the Quran in lithographic prints, with one edition published in 1243 AH/1827-8 in Tehran and another in 1248 AH/1832-3 in Tabriz. Following Iran, the Ottoman Empire published the Quran in various editions in 1294 AH/1877. Egypt produced a distinguished edition of the Quran in 1342 AH/1923-4, and Iraq followed with its own notable edition in 1370 AH/1950-1.

Bibliography

  • The Quran in the Context of History: The Evolution of Quranic Transcription from the Era of Revelation to the Present (Qur'an dar bastar-i tarikh: sayr-i tatawwur-i kitabat-i Qur'an az 'asr-i nuzul ta zaman-i hadir) edited by Murtizda Tawakuli, University of Quranic Sciences and Studies, Tehran, 2025.
  • A New Perspective on the Transcription and Recitation of the Holy Quran (Nigahi naw bi kitabat wa qira'at-i Qur'an-i karim) by Husayn Mansurnia, Rahi Publishing, Tehran, 2018.
  • The Practice of Quranic Recitation and Transcription in the Prophetic Tradition (Ayin-i qira'at wa kitabat-i Qur'an-i karim dar sira-yi nabawi) by Muhsin Rajabi Ghudsi, Bustan-i Kitab Institute, Qom, 2011.
  • A Study on the Recitation, Transcription, and Preservation of the Holy Quran (Pazhuhishi dar qira'at, kitabat wa hifazat-i Qur'an-i karim) by 'Ali Babaei, Armaghan-i Tuba Publishing, Qom, 2022.
  • Calligraphy in Service of Transcribing the Holy Quran (Khushniwisi dar khidmat-i kitabat-i Qur'an-i majid) by Murtada Paksirisht, Ghadyani Publishing, Tehran, 2001.

See Also

Notes

References

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