Jump to content

Colonialism

Add links
From wikishia

Colonialism is the forced domination of one country or nation over another, keeping it in a dependent, subordinate, and backward state. European colonialism began with the occupation of Muslim-populated countries in North Africa and subsequently expanded to other societies, including Shi'a communities in Iran, Iraq, and India.

According to researchers, Iran was never officially a colony; however, it fell under the influence of colonial powers through unjust commercial treaties. During World War I, British forces occupied Iraq and installed a puppet government there. In India, the Shi'a government of Oudh was destroyed by the British East India Company. The occupation of Palestine and the establishment of Israel are also considered consequences of colonialism.

The partition of colonized countries and the seizure of their economic resources are considered key methods of colonizers. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned by colonial powers, creating new countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. The seizure of natural resources, colonial treaties, imposition of cultural and linguistic changes, and the weakening of indigenous identities are enumerated as colonial methods.

Muslims have resisted colonialism through various methods. These include fatwas issued by Shi'a scholars (ulama) in Iraq and Iran, the establishment of anti-colonial organizations, armed uprisings, revolutions, and non-violent independence movements.

Concept and Position

In political terminology, colonialism refers to the cultural, political, and economic domination of a powerful nation over a weaker one, keeping the latter in a dependent, subordinate, and backward state.[1] Colonialism is closely related to the concept of exploitation (istithmār).[2] The rise of the Ottoman Empire and the severance of land routes between Europe and Asia,[3] the accumulation of capital in the European ecclesiastical system, and the desire to acquire the legendary wealth of the East are considered the main reasons for the Europeans' turn to colonialism.[4]

It is said that in the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans colonized Muslim-populated regions of North Africa with the motivation of combating the expansion of Islam, in addition to economic objectives.[5] According to historical documents, many Islamic countries and Shi'a communities have been under the influence of European colonialism.[6] According to historical researchers, due to the political, social, and cultural actions of colonial powers, significant changes occurred in colonized countries in geographical areas (territorial seizure and partition),[7] socio-cultural spheres (weakening of national-religious values and changing lifestyles),[8] and economic sectors (plunder of resources and creation of single-product systems).[9]

Scope in Islamic Societies

Researchers consider Ceuta (Sebta), a city in northern Morocco, to be the first Muslim-populated place colonized by Europeans.[10] Algeria, Libya, Egypt, and Tunisia are among the Muslim countries that were colonies of Europeans.[11] Among Shi'a societies, Iran, Iraq, and Oudh (in India) are also considered societies that were under the influence of colonialism.[12]

Iran and Colonial Treaties

Iran is not considered to have ever been officially and completely colonized by European countries;[citation needed] however, research indicates that from the arrival of the first group of colonizers in the 16th century[13] until the years leading up to the Islamic Revolution of Iran,[14] the country was consistently under the influence of colonial powers.

As evidenced by some historical documents and correspondence, certain commercial treaties between Iran and foreign agents are considered instances of colonial domination over Iran.[15] In the 20th century, Muhammad Mosaddegh and Abu l-Qasim Kashani, with popular support, succeeded in removing Iran's oil from the control of British agents and nationalizing it.[16] However, pressure and sabotage by Britain and the United States continued, and in the coup d'état of August 19, 1953, Musaddiq's government was overthrown.[17]

Occupation of Iraq by British Forces

During World War I (1914-1918), Britain declared war on the Ottoman government.[18] According to reports, the British assumed that the Shi'a would take their side and drive Ottoman agents out of Iraq.[19] Contrary to this expectation, and although Shi'a jurists were dissatisfied with the Ottoman government, they issued fatwas for jihad against Britain because they considered the occupation of Islamic lands by Christians to be legally forbidden (ḥarām).[20] Nevertheless, British forces were able to dominate Iraq by relying on heavy weaponry, air power,[21] and manpower deployed from India.[22]

Overthrow of the Shi'a Government of Oudh in India

In the mid-18th century (1757-1764), the British East India Company engaged in battle with local governments in India, including the Shi'a government of Oudh, and defeated them.[23] From then on, through influence, sabotage, and the extraction of high taxes from the landlords of that region, the British company disrupted the balanced relationship between the rulers of Oudh and the landlords, which led to rebellions.[24] Additionally, Britain granted large loans to the Oudh government and, in exchange for its demands, took control of parts of the Shi'a territory as well as their foreign relations, turning Oudh into a puppet government.[25] In 1858, under the pretext of ending the Oudh rebellions, Britain put an end to the Shi'a government in this region and annexed it to its empire.[26]

Occupation of Palestine

Main article: Occupation of Palestine

Many thinkers consider the issue of the occupation of Palestine to be a consequence of colonialism.[27] According to them, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the British Mandate over Palestine led to the emergence of Israel.[28] Apart from the manner of Israel's formation, some analysts view the Zionist regime's settlement expansion process in Palestinian areas as an example of colonial occupation.[29] They also consider this regime's attempt to dominate the Gaza Strip and build Jewish settlements in this region as a colonial phenomenon.[30]

Methods of Struggle Against Colonialism

Fatwas of Marja's Against Occupiers

Fatwa of Jihad by Muhammad Taqi Shirazi

Demanding rights is obligatory upon the people of Iraq, and it is upon them to observe peace and security while taking action to realize their demands. If the British refuse to accept the people's demands, it is permissible for the people to resort to force and strength for defense.[31]

Among surviving documents, there are clear examples of the struggle of Iraqi Marja's (religious authorities) against British colonialism. For instance, during the Qajar era, Sayyid Muhammad Kazim Yazdi declared the struggle against Britain to be obligatory.[32] Muhammad Taqi Shirazi issued a fatwa for jihad[33] and also declared employment in British offices forbidden for Muslims.[34] According to historians, Marja's such as Akhund Khurasani[35] and even Fath Allah Gharawi Isfahani explicitly led anti-British uprisings.[36]

In addition to Iraq, the presence of foreign forces in Iran was also met with reactions from Marja's. For example, Muḥammad Taqi Shirazi issued a fatwa in 1911 on the necessity of confronting Russian forces after they attacked northern Iran.[37] These fatwas were not limited to Shi'a lands; for instance, following the occupation of Libya by Italian forces and the invasion of Iran by Russia and Britain, Sayyid Muhammad Kazim Yazdi declared confronting the occupiers to be the duty of all Muslims.[38]

Also, according to historians, some clerics in Iran and Iraq established anti-colonial groups such as the Society of Islamic Movement (Jamʿiyyat-i Nahḍat-i Islāmī), the Secret Party of Najaf (al-Hizb al-Najafi al-Sirri) , and the Secret Party of Kadhimiya.[39]

Opposition to Colonial Treaties

As historical reports from the Qajar era indicate, some thinkers of this period were aware of the concept of colonialism and its effects, especially those left in India.[40] Given these issues, Shi'a clerics opposed many of these treaties, including the Reuter Concession (construction of roads, railways, dams, and exploitation of mines, forests, and customs of Iran) and the Regie Concession (monopoly on tobacco).[41] Among the events effective in the Tobacco Protest, the struggles of Sayyid Jamal al-Din Asadabadi and the fatwa of Mirza Shirazi can be mentioned.[42]

Efforts to Overthrow Puppet Governments

In 1932/1340 AH, scholars such as Muhammad Husayn Gharawi Na'ini, Sayyid Abu l-Hasan Isfahani, Mahdi Khalisi, and Sayyid Hasan Sadr opposed the monarchy of King Faisal as a British puppet.[43] Also in 1941, after Faisal's rule was established, an uprising formed against him, and some Shi'a jurists, including Sayyid Abu l-Hasan Isfahani, Muhammad Husayn Kashif al-Ghita, and Abd al-Karim Jazairi, issued fatwas for jihad in support of this uprising.[44]

Revolution and Non-Violent Independence Seeking

According to historians, in the 19th century, Indians attempted to fight colonialism through violent struggle, but the British suppressed this rebellion.[45] Subsequently, the Indian independence movement in the 20th century succeeded under the non-violent leadership of Gandhi.[46] Of course, Muslims in India also demanded independence and formed the country of Pakistan through their partisan activities.[47]

Some researchers have compared Gandhi's non-violence with the method of Imam Khomeini in the Islamic Revolution of Iran.[48] In many of his speeches and writings, Imam Khomeini enumerated colonialism as the cause of plundering national wealth, economic dependence, corruption of indigenous culture and values, anti-religiousness, and sowing religious discord.[49] He considered the Pahlavi dynasty to be a puppet of the colonizers;[50] however, according to researchers, Imam Khomeini did not believe in armed movements in his struggle method.[51]

Methods of Colonialism

Territorial Seizure or Partition

Seizing a territory is counted as one of the first colonial methods.[52] For example, Portuguese colonizers in the 16th century seized islands such as Hormuz and Bahrain.[53] It is also reported that at the beginning of the 20th century, 90 percent of Africa was under colonial rule.[54] European colonizers occupied and then partitioned the Ottoman territory, creating new countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon.[55] This trend continued after World War II with the establishment of Israel.[56] In Qajar Iran, Britain also attacked Persian Gulf islands to maintain its dominance over India and in competition with France and Russia, and then separated Afghanistan from Iran through the Treaty of Paris.[57]

Changing Indigenous Culture

Creating cultural changes in colonized regions is listed as one of the methods of colonial domination.[58] Promoting promiscuity, weakening indigenous values, and changing moral value systems are also said to be examples of cultural changes by colonizers.[59] For instance, the British in India sought to establish the Hindi language, while in contrast, the Muslims wanted to establish the Urdu language; for this reason, Indian Muslims established institutions to promote Urdu.[60] France also tried to expand the French language in Lebanon and Syria and, in addition, promoted the European lifestyle in these regions.[61]

Economic Colonialism

Methods of economic colonialism include the plundering of resources and taxation of merchants and traders.[62] For example, the objective of colonizers in the Persian Gulf islands is stated to have been collecting taxes from Persian Gulf merchants, dominating Indian Ocean shipping, and controlling pearl fishing revenues.[63] Also, during World War II, Russia and Britain occupied northern and southern Iran and took control of the economic, commercial, and military interests of these regions.[64]

Indirect methods of colonialism are also noted to include making agriculture single-product, the dependence of the colony's production system on the colonizing country, and imposing development systems.[65] For example, according to researchers, the reason why foreign contracts in the Qajar era had turned Iran into a semi-colonial state was that the export of raw materials was growing rapidly, while the export of Iranian manufactured goods was decreasing.[66] Also, one of the first actions of British colonizers in India and Bangladesh was the destruction of local industry and agriculture and pushing the local people towards selling raw materials.[67] It is said that this policy led to great famines; for instance, between 1880 and 1920 alone, over one hundred million Indians died as a result of these artificial famines.[68]

Notes

  1. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. Qom, Markaz-i Bayn al-Milalī-yi Tarjuma wa Nashr-i al-Muṣṭafā, 1389 Sh, p. 19.
  2. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. p. 20.
  3. ↑ Ṭarafdārī. "Ḥuḍūr-i nukhustīn-i istiʿmārgarān-i Urūpāyī dar Khalīj-i Fārs". p. 52.
  4. ↑ Ṭarafdārī. "Ḥuḍūr-i nukhustīn-i istiʿmārgarān-i Urūpāyī dar Khalīj-i Fārs". pp. 53-54.
  5. ↑ Ṭarafdārī. "Ḥuḍūr-i nukhustīn-i istiʿmārgarān-i Urūpāyī dar Khalīj-i Fārs". p. 57.
  6. ↑ Warmington, Brian H. & Brett, Michael. "North Africa after 1830"; Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". p. 107; Ḥaydarī. "Rūḥāniyyat wa taḥrīm-i tanbākū". p. 80; Kātib, al-. Tajribat al-thawra al-Islāmiyya fī l-ʿIrāq. p. 52.
  7. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. p. 110.
  8. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. pp. 97-100.
  9. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. pp. 104-107.
  10. ↑ Ṭarafdārī. "Ḥuḍūr-i nukhustīn-i istiʿmārgarān-i Urūpāyī dar Khalīj-i Fārs". p. 56.
  11. ↑ Warmington, Brian H. & Brett, Michael. "North Africa after 1830".
  12. ↑ Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". p. 107; Ḥaydarī. "Rūḥāniyyat wa taḥrīm-i tanbākū". p. 80; Kātib, al-. Tajribat al-thawra al-Islāmiyya fī l-ʿIrāq. p. 52.
  13. ↑ Baygī. "Tārīkhcha-yi ḥuḍūr-i bīgānagān dar Khalīj-i Fārs". Imam Sadiq University website.
  14. ↑ "Istiʿmār-i naw 53 sāl dar Īrān ḥukūmat kard". IBNA.
  15. ↑ Ḥaydarī. "Rūḥāniyyat wa taḥrīm-i tanbākū". p. 80.
  16. ↑ ʿĀqilī. Sharḥ-i ḥāl-i rijāl-i siyāsī wa niẓāmī-yi muʿāṣir-i Īrān. Tehran, Guftār, 1380 Sh, vol. 3, p. 1474.
  17. ↑ ʿĀqilī. Rūzshumār-i tārīkh-i Īrān. Tehran, Guftār, 1370 Sh, vol. 2, p. 9; Fardūst. Ẓuhūr wa suqūṭ-i salṭanat-i Pahlawī. Tehran, Iṭṭilāʿāt, 1373 Sh, vol. 1, p. 182 & 269; Sarshār. Khāṭirāt-i Shaʿbān Jaʿfarī. Tehran, Sāliṭ, 1399 Sh, p. 160.
  18. ↑ Khurāsānī & Marzah. "Bastarhā-yi taḍād wa muqāwamat-i guftimān-i Shīʿī dar ʿIrāq-i muʿāṣir". p. 102.
  19. ↑ Mīr ʿAlī & Riḍāʾī. "Wujūb-i ḥifẓ-i Dār al-Islām". p. 16.
  20. ↑ Mīr ʿAlī & Riḍāʾī. "Wujūb-i ḥifẓ-i Dār al-Islām". p. 16.
  21. ↑ Wiley. Nahḍat-i Islāmī-yi Shīʿayān-i ʿIrāq. p. 35.
  22. ↑ Kātib, al-. Tajribat al-thawra al-Islāmiyya fī l-ʿIrāq. p. 52.
  23. ↑ Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". pp. 98-99.
  24. ↑ Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". p. 102.
  25. ↑ Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". p. 105.
  26. ↑ Manṣūr al-Ajdād & Ṭarafdārī. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd". p. 107.
  27. ↑ McDonnell. "The West's Colonization of Muslim Land and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalis". Peace University.
  28. ↑ McDonnell. "The West's Colonization of Muslim Land and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalis". Peace University.
  29. ↑ "Istiʿmār-i shahrak-nishīn chīst?". Mizan News Agency.
  30. ↑ "Istiʿmār-i shahrak-nishīn chīst?". Mizan News Agency.
  31. ↑ Āqā Buzurg Tihrānī. Ṭabaqāt aʿlām al-Shīʿa. Vol. 13, p. 263.
  32. ↑ Dādfar & Niʿmatī. "Marājiʿ-i Īrānī wa qiyām-i 1920 Shīʿayān-i ʿIrāq". p. 82.
  33. ↑ Raḥīmī. Tārīkh-i junbish-i Islāmī dar ʿIrāq. p. 142-143.
  34. ↑ Raḥīmī. Tārīkh-i junbish-i Islāmī dar ʿIrāq. p. 189.
  35. ↑ Nakash. The Shi'is of Iraq. pp. 215-217; Litvak. A Failed Manipulation. pp. 74-78.
  36. ↑ Litvak. A Failed Manipulation. pp. 74-78 & 84-86; Nakash. The Shi'is of Iraq. pp. 215-217 & 227-228.
  37. ↑ Raḥīmī. Tārīkh-i junbish-i Islāmī dar ʿIrāq. p. 126.
  38. ↑ Ḥātamī & Bihishtī-sirisht. "Taqābul wa taʿāmul-i Ākhūnd Mullā Muḥammad Kāẓim Khurāsānī wa Sayyid Muḥammad Kāẓim Yazdī dar jaryān-i inqilāb-i mashrūṭa". pp. 15-16.
  39. ↑ Khurāsānī & Marzah. "Bastarhā-yi taḍād wa muqāwamat-i guftimān-i Shīʿī dar ʿIrāq-i muʿāṣir". p. 115.
  40. ↑ Qadīmī Qīdārī. "Rūykardhā-yi muvarrikhān-i Qājārī bi Urūpā wa istiʿmār". pp. 80-81.
  41. ↑ Chirāghī Kūtiyānī. "ʿUlamā-yi ʿaṣr-i mashrūṭa wa salṭanat-i Qājār". p. 116; Iʿtimād al-Salṭana. Rūznāma-yi khāṭirāt. p. 870; Jahānī. "Imtiyāz-i Royter sanad-i istiʿmār-i Ingilīs ʿalayh-i Qājāriyya". IRNA.
  42. ↑ Keddie. Taḥrīm-i tanbākū dar Īrān. pp. 57-58.
  43. ↑ Farāhānī. Rūzshumār-i tārīkh-i muʿāṣir-i Īrān. Vol. 1, p. 560; Āl Firʿawn. al-Ḥaqāʾiq al-nāṣiʿa fī l-thawra al-ʿIrāqiyya. pp. 516, 532.
  44. ↑ Khusrawshāhī. "Fatāwā-yi ʿulamā-yi buzurg barāy-i mubāriza bā dushman". pp. 28-31.
  45. ↑ Chandra. India's Struggle for Independence. p. 600.
  46. ↑ Mūsawī Jashnī. "Muṭālaʿa-yi taṭbīqī-yi rūykard-i Imām Khumaynī wa Mahātmā Gāndī bi ʿadam-i khushūnat". p. 119.
  47. ↑ Shāpūriyān. "Istiqlāl-i Pākistān". p. 21.
  48. ↑ Mūsawī Jashnī. "Muṭālaʿa-yi taṭbīqī-yi rūykard-i Imām Khumaynī wa Mahātmā Gāndī bi ʿadam-i khushūnat". p. 102.
  49. ↑ Imam Khomeini. Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām. Vol. 1, pp. 380-385 & Vol. 21, pp. 414-420; Kūrānī. "Imām Khumaynī (rh) wa istiʿmār, dīdgāhhā wa rāhkārhā-yi mubāriza bā ān". Imam Khomeini Portal.
  50. ↑ Imam Khomeini. Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām. Vol. 9, p. 97.
  51. ↑ Mūsawī Jashnī. "Muṭālaʿa-yi taṭbīqī-yi rūykard-i Imām Khumaynī wa Mahātmā Gāndī bi ʿadam-i khushūnat". p. 123.
  52. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. p. 110.
  53. ↑ Baygī. "Tārīkhcha-yi ḥuḍūr-i bīgānagān dar Khalīj-i Fārs". Imam Sadiq University website.
  54. ↑ Sāʿī. Darāmadī bar shinākht-i masāʾil-i iqtiṣādī siyāsī-yi jahān-i sivvum. p. 28.
  55. ↑ "Marāḥil-i tajziya-yi jahān-i Islām tawassuṭ-i istiʿmār dar ʿaṣr-i muʿāṣir". Defa Press.
  56. ↑ "Marāḥil-i tajziya-yi jahān-i Islām tawassuṭ-i istiʿmār dar ʿaṣr-i muʿāṣir". Defa Press.
  57. ↑ Āhangarān, et al. "Bāzkāvī-yi naqsh-i Ingilistān wa kampānī-yi hind-i sharqī dar judāyī-yi Afghānistān az Īrān-i dawra-yi Qājār". pp. 110-115.
  58. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. p. 97.
  59. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. pp. 97-100.
  60. ↑ Hardy. Musalmānān-i Hind-i Brītāniyā. pp. 189-192.
  61. ↑ ʿAlī-zāda. Farhang-i khāṣ-i ʿulūm-i siyāsī. p. 73.
  62. ↑ Qāsimiyān. "Barrasī-yi taʾthīrāt-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣādī-yi ẓuhūr-i istiʿmār...". pp. 87-89; "Ishghāl-i Īrān tawassuṭ-i muttafiqīn, ʿilal wa payāmdhā". ISNA; Baygī. "Tārīkhcha-yi ḥuḍūr-i bīgānagān dar Khalīj-i Fārs". Imam Sadiq University website.
  63. ↑ Qāsimiyān. "Barrasī-yi taʾthīrāt-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣādī-yi ẓuhūr-i istiʿmār...". pp. 87-88.
  64. ↑ "Ishghāl-i Īrān tawassuṭ-i muttafiqīn, ʿilal wa payāmdhā". ISNA.
  65. ↑ Asqandarī. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. pp. 104-107.
  66. ↑ Aḥmadī Ikhtiyār & Dihqān-nizhād. "Taḥlīlī bar qarārdād-i gumrukī-yi Īrān wa Rūsiya dar dawra-yi Qājār". pp. 17-18.
  67. ↑ "an overview of european invasion of islamic world". pbs.com.
  68. ↑ Sullivan & Hickel. "How British colonialism killed 100 million Indians in 40 years". Aljazeera.

References

  • "Āshnāyī-yi gudharā wa kūtāh bā Jamʿiyyat-i Fadāʾiyān-i Islām". Markaz-i Barrasī-yi Asnād-i Tārīkhī. Date of insertion: 11 Mordad 1403 Sh. Date of visit: 29 Mehr 1403 Sh.
  • "Istiʿmār-i shahrak-nishīn chīst?". Mizan News Agency. Date of insertion: 18 Bahman 1402 Sh. Date of visit: 3 Shahrivar 1403 Sh, 18 Mehr 1403 Sh.
  • "Ishghāl-i Īrān tawassuṭ-i muttafiqīn, ʿilal wa payāmdhā". ISNA. Date of insertion: 3 Shahrivar 1403 Sh. Date of visit: 3 Shahrivar 1403 Sh, 18 Mehr 1403 Sh.
  • "Marāḥil-i tajziya-yi jahān-i Islām tawassuṭ-i istiʿmār dar ʿaṣr-i muʿāṣir". Defa Press.
  • An overview of european invasion of islamic world. pbs.com.
  • Āhangarān, Amīr, et al. "Bāzkāvī-yi naqsh-i Ingilistān wa kampānī-yi hind-i sharqī dar judāyī-yi Afghānistān az Īrān-i dawra-yi Qājār". Pazhūhish-hā-yi Tārīkhī. No. 3, Azar 1394 Sh.
  • Aḥmadī Ikhtiyār, Mahdī & Dihqān-nizhād, Mahdī. "Taḥlīlī bar qarārdād-i gumrukī-yi Īrān wa Rūsiya dar dawra-yi Qājār". Tārīkh-i Islām dar Āyina-yi Pazhūhish. No. 21, Bahar 1388 Sh.
  • Āl Firʿawn, Farīq Muzhir. al-Ḥaqāʾiq al-nāṣiʿa fī l-thawra al-ʿIrāqiyya sanat 1920 wa natāʾijuhā. Baghdad, n.p, 1415/1995.
  • ʿAlī-zāda, Ḥasan. Farhang-i khāṣ-i ʿulūm-i siyāsī. Tehran, Rūzbih, 1381 Sh.
  • ʿĀqilī, Bāqir. Rūzshumār-i tārīkh-i Īrān. Tehran, Guftār, 1370 Sh.
  • ʿĀqilī, Bāqir. Sharḥ-i ḥāl-i rijāl-i siyāsī wa niẓāmī-yi muʿāṣir-i Īrān. Tehran, Guftār, 1380 Sh.
  • Āqā Buzurg Tihrānī, Muḥammad Muḥsin. Ṭabaqāt aʿlām al-Shīʿa (Nuqabāʾ al-bashar fī l-qarn al-rābiʿ ʿashar). Mashhad, Dār al-Murtaḍā, 1404 AH.
  • Asqandarī, Muṣṭafā. Shinākht-i istiʿmār. Qom, Markaz-i Bayn al-Milalī-yi Tarjuma wa Nashr-i al-Muṣṭafā, 1389 Sh.
  • Chandra, Bipan. India's Struggle for Independence. New Delhi, Penguin Books, 1989.
  • Chirāghī Kūtiyānī, Ismāʿīl. "ʿUlamā-yi ʿaṣr-i mashrūṭa wa salṭanat-i Qājār; taʿāmul-hā wa taqābul-hā".
  • Dādfar, Sajjād & Niʿmatī, Nūr al-Dīn. "Marājiʿ-i Īrānī wa qiyām-i 1920 Shīʿayān-i ʿIrāq". Pazhūhish-nāma-yi Tārīkh-i Islām. No. 9, Bahar 1392 Sh.
  • Farāhānī, Ḥasan. Rūzshumār-i tārīkh-i muʿāṣir-i Īrān. Tehran, Muʾassisa-yi Muṭālaʿāt wa Pazhūhish-hā-yi Siyāsī, 1385 Sh.
  • Hardy, Peter. Musalmānān-i Hind-i Brītāniyā. Translated by Ḥasan Lāhūtī. Mashhad, Āstān-i Quds-i Raḍawī, 1369 Sh.
  • Ḥātamī, Ḥusayn & Bihishtī-sirisht, Ḥasan. "Taqābul wa taʿāmul-i Ākhūnd Mullā Muḥammad Kāẓim Khurāsānī wa Sayyid Muḥammad Kāẓim Yazdī dar jaryān-i inqilāb-i mashrūṭa". Faṣlnāma-yi ʿUlūm-i Insānī-yi Dānishgāh-i al-Zahrā (s). No. 71, 1387 Sh.
  • Ḥaydarī, Aṣghar. "Rūḥāniyyat wa nahḍat-i taḥrīm-i tanbākū". Tārīkh-i Muʿāṣir-i Īrān. No. 42, Tabistan 1386 Sh.
  • Iʿtimād al-Salṭana, Muḥammad Ḥasan. Rūznāma-yi khāṭirāt. Edited by Īraj Afshār. Tehran, Amīrkabīr, 1350 Sh.
  • Imam Khomeini, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh. Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām. Tehran, Muʾassisa-yi Tanẓīm wa Nashr-i Āthār-i Imām Khumaynī, 1389 Sh.
  • Jahānī, Firishta. "Imtiyāz-i Royter; sanad-i istiʿmār-i Ingilīs ʿalayh-i Qājāriyya ". IRNA. Date of insertion: 5 Bahman 1398 Sh. Date of visit: 18 Mehr 1403 Sh.
  • Kātib, Aḥmad al-. Tajribat al-thawra al-Islāmiyya fī l-ʿIrāq. 1981.
  • Keddie, Nikki. Taḥrīm-i tanbākū dar Īrān. Translated by Shāhrukh Qāʾim-maqāmī. Tehran, Jībī, 1358 Sh.
  • Khurāsānī, Riḍā & Marzah, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. "Bastarhā-yi taḍād wa muqāwamat-i guftimān-i Shīʿī dar ʿIrāq-i muʿāṣir". Rahyāft-hā-yi Siyāsī wa Bayn al-Milalī. No. 72, Zemestan 1401 Sh.
  • Khusrawshāhī, Sayyid Hādī. "Fatāwā-yi ʿulamā-yi buzurg barāy-i jihād bā dushman". Dars-hāyī az Maktab-i Islām. No. 2, Farvardin 1341 Sh.
  • Kūrānī, Ḥusayn. "Imām Khumaynī (rh) wa istiʿmār, dīdgāhhā wa rāhkārhā-yi mubāriza bā ān". Imam Khomeini Portal. Date of insertion: 11 Ordibehesht 1397 Sh.
  • Litvak, Meir. "A Failed Manipulation: The British, the Oudh Bequest and the Shī'ī 'Ulamā' of Najaf and Karbalā". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. Vol. 27, No. 1, May, 2000.
  • Manṣūr al-Ajdād, Muḥammad Ḥusayn & Ṭarafdārī, Manṣūr. "Istiʿmār-i Ingilīs wa ḥukūmat-i Shīʿī-yi Awd (1722-1856)". Shīʿa-shināsī. No. 27, Pa'iz 1388 Sh.
  • McDonnell. The West's Colonization of Muslim Land and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalis. Peace University.
  • Mūsawī Jashnī, Sayyid Ṣadr al-Dīn & Gulbāgh, Muḥammad Muʿīn. "Muṭālaʿa-yi taṭbīqī-yi rūykard-i Imām Khumaynī wa Mahātmā Gāndī bi ʿadam-i khushūnat". Pazhūhish-nāma-yi Matīn. No. 71, Tabistan 1395 Sh.
  • Nakash, Yitzhak. The Shi'is of Iraq. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2003.
  • Qadīmī Qīdārī, ʿAbbās. "Rūykardhā-yi muvarrikhān-i Qājārī bi Urūpā wa istiʿmār". Justārhā-yi Tārīkhī. No. 1, 1389 Sh.
  • Qāsimiyān, Salmān. "Barrasī-yi taʾthīrāt-i ijtimāʿī wa iqtiṣādī-yi ẓuhūr-i istiʿmār bar Shīʿayān-i sawāḥil-i junūbī-yi khalīj-i fārs dar ʿaṣr-i ṣafawī". Tārīkh-i Farhang wa Tamaddun-i Islāmī. No. 47, Tabistan 1401 Sh.
  • Raḥīmī, ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm. Tārīkh-i junbish-i Islāmī dar ʿIrāq: 1900-1924. Translated by Jaʿfar Dilshād. Isfahan, Chahārbāgh, 1380 Sh.
  • Sāʿī, Aḥmad. Darāmadī bar shinākht-i masāʾil-i iqtiṣādī siyāsī-yi jahān-i sivvum. Tehran, Qūmis, 2nd ed, 1375 Sh.
  • Shāpūriyān, ʿAlī Muḥammad. "Istiqlāl-i Pākistān". Hilāl. No. 82, Mordad and Shahrivar 1347 Sh.
  • Sullivan, D. & Hickel, J. "How British colonialism killed 100 million Indians in 40 years". Aljazeera.
  • Warmington, Brian H., Brett, Michael & Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. "North Africa after 1830". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Wiley, Joyce. Nahḍat-i Islāmī-yi Shīʿayān-i ʿIrāq. Translated by Mahvash Ghulāmī. Tehran, Muʾassisa-yi Iṭṭilāʿāt, 1373 Sh.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikishia.net/w/index.php?title=Colonialism&oldid=200572"