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Execution (iʿdām) is the death penalty for the commission of specific crimes. In Islamic jurisprudence, based on the type of crime, it is divided into retaliatory, haddi, and ta'ziri execution. Retaliatory execution is carried out for premeditated murder. Haddi execution is a punishment ordained by the Legislator (Shari') for specific crimes such as liwat, zina al-muhsana, and muharaba. Ta'ziri execution is considered a punishment established by the sovereign for crimes that cause serious damage to the economic, political, and social security of the country. Regarding the legitimacy of the death penalty, the Qur'an, narrations, consensus of scholars, and the verdict of reason have been cited.

Ensuring criminal justice, maintaining social security, and preventing individual revenge are considered among the wisdoms of the death penalty. Some legal scholars have deemed the death penalty contrary to the right to life. Conversely, some have responded that any form of punishment, such as exile or imprisonment, is also against the right to human freedom, and the death penalty cannot be abolished with this justification.

In religious sources, in proportion to the type of crime, methods such as killing with a sword and rajam have been stated for the execution of the sentence. Some jurists believe that the implementation of these methods during the time of the Messenger of Allah (s) was based on specific interests in different cases. According to some jurists, if the implementation of certain limits leads to the weakening of religion, the method of execution can be changed, and methods such as firing squad or hanging can be used.

If after the execution of the punishment, the criminal survives for any reason, most jurists believe that they must be executed again.

Definition and Status

Execution, meaning to eliminate and kill, is considered the severest form of punishment that terminates the criminal's life.[1] In the Qur'an, terms such as qatl (killing),[2] salb,[3]Template:Note rajam[4] (stoning), dhabh[5] (beheading), and their derivatives refer to execution.[6]

In the hadith sources of the Shi'a and Sunni, numerous narrations from the Infallibles (a) are seen regarding the death penalty.[7] In a hadith narrated from Imam al-Sadiq (a), the punishment for someone who intentionally kills a believer is stated as retaliation and their execution.[8] Jurists have also cited the consensus of scholars and the verdict of reason, in addition to the Qur'an and hadith, regarding the legitimacy of the death penalty.[9]

Based on the type of crime, the death penalty is divided into three categories: retaliatory, haddi, and ta'ziri:[10]

Retaliatory Execution

Retaliatory execution is carried out for the premeditated murder of someone whose blood is protected.[11] Exegetes consider verses of the Qur'an, such as verses 178 and 179 of Sura al-BaqaraTemplate:Note and verse 33 of Sura al-Isra'Template:Note to be indicative of this type of execution.[12] According to them, based on the Verse of Retaliation, the execution of the murderer is not mandatory; rather, God has considered this right for the heirs of the slain so that if they demand retaliation, they may retaliate, and if they waive retaliation, they may receive blood money. This ruling is a mitigation from God and prohibits the parties from transgressing against one another.[13]

Haddi Execution

Haddi execution is a punishment determined by the Legislator (Shari') for specific crimes, which they have divided into three categories:[14]

  1. Sexual offenses; such as zina al-muhsana,[15] zina bil-'unf,[16] Incest[17] and liwat.[18]
  2. Crimes against religion and social security; such as insulting the Messenger of Allah (s),[19] Apostasy,[20] muharaba[21] and ifsad fil-ard.[22]
  3. Recurrence of certain crimes; such as shurb al-khamr[23] and non-muhsana adultery[24] whose punishment is lashing, but in the case of multiple repetitions, it leads to the death penalty.

Ta'ziri Execution

Ta'ziri execution is considered a punishment for which there is no explicit text (nass) from the Legislator, but is determined by the sovereign for certain crimes such as drug trafficking.[25][26] Although jurists consider the amount of ta'zir punishment to be less than the hadd,[27] some jurists like Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī have, in a general definition, called the punishment for any crime for which no amount is determined in Sharia as ta'zir.[28]

Therefore, some researchers believe that determining the type and amount of ta'zir is at the discretion of the Islamic ruler,[29] and the sovereign can, in order to prevent chaos and preserve the Islamic system, establish a severe punishment for crimes that cause serious damage to the economic, political, and social security of the country.[30]

Philosophy of Execution

Ensuring criminal justice, maintaining social security, and preventing individual revenge are stated as among the wisdoms of the death penalty.[31] The Holy Qur'an introduces retaliatory execution as a source of life.[32] Tafsir-i Nimuna considers this punishment to be both a source of life for society and a prevention of endangering people's lives, as well as a source of life for the one who intends to commit murder; because [as mentioned in some traditions[33]] it largely deters them from the thought of killing. Moreover, due to the necessity of justice and equality, it prevents the successive killings that existed in pre-Islamic traditions.[34]

Also, some believe that the death penalty leads to the preservation of social order and security; because some criminal acts threaten psychological security and the health of social life, and if these crimes are met with a swift reaction and appropriate punishment, the possibility of human growth and excellence in a healthy society is provided.[35]

History of Execution

The historical background of the death penalty is reported thousands of years before Christ among the peoples of Babylon, Assyria, and the Achaemenids,[36] and its causes included kidnapping, illicit sexual relations, and harboring runaway slaves.[37] In Divine religions such as Zoroastrianism,[38] Judaism[39] and Christianity,[40] the death penalty was also considered for crimes such as zina, liwat, miscarriage, irtidad, and premeditated murder.[41]

After World War II, in the statute of the International Criminal Court, execution was foreseen as one of the applicable punishments,[42] but gradually documents were approved that considered the right to life as an inherent human right and the abolition of the death penalty was declared.[43]

View of Critics

Some legal scholars have considered the death penalty contrary to the human right to life and Human Rights.[44] Conversely, it is said that freedom is also a human right, therefore a criminal should not be exiled or imprisoned either.[45] Furthermore, if the purpose of taking one person's life is to give life to several people—by maintaining their security—there is no barrier to their execution.[46]

Another objection of critics is the ineffectiveness of execution and the criminal's lack of fear of death before committing the crime;[47] hence they have suggested life imprisonment as an alternative.[48] In response, it is said that life imprisonment can be effective in individual prevention, but it does not have a significant impact on general prevention and the deterrence of others. Moreover, in terms of social psychology, the dread and terror that the death penalty creates will not be provided by imprisonment.[49]

Method of Carrying out Execution

In hadith sources[50] and jurisprudential ones[51] in proportion to the type of crime, methods for carrying out the death penalty have been stated, which include: killing with a sword, rajam, burning,Template:Note crucifixion, throwing from a mountain, cross-amputation of hands and feet, and toppling a wall on the criminal.[52] Mohammad Yazdi, one of the Shi'a jurists, citing narrations,[53] believes that these types of punishments occurred in various cases during the time of the Messenger of Allah (s), and in each case, action was taken based on the specific interest of that case—whose main goal was to kill the criminal.[54] According to Imam Khomeini, if in some cases the implementation of certain limits leads to the weakening of religion, the Islamic ruler has the authority to temporarily suspend the implementation of the limits to preserve the more important interests of Islam.[55] Also, in the view of jurists such as Mohammad Fazel Lankarani[56] and Naser Makarem Shirazi,[57] in this case, the method of execution can be changed and methods such as firing squad or hanging can be used. In Iran, the conditions, stages, and manner of carrying out punishments leading to the deprivation of life are codified in Article 293 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, in four chapters.[58]

Painless Execution

Some jurists like Sayyid Musa Shubayri Zanjani, Sayyid Abdul-Karim Mousavi Ardebili, and Yousef Saanei have deemed the use of poison, which causes a more comfortable death for the criminal, permissible in cases where no specific method for execution has been determined.[59] According to Sayyid Mohammad Sadeq Rouhani, a Shi'a jurist, execution should not be very painful. This has been highly recommended in the chapter of limits, and with nullification of the specific characteristic, it can be concluded that [in execution methods] a method should be chosen that causes less distress.[60] According to some Sunni jurists, traditional tools in limits and retaliation have no intrinsic status (mawdu'iyya),[61] and it is also narrated from the Fatwa Committee of al-Azhar that retaliation by means of electric chair and the like, which causes a more comfortable death for the criminal, is permissible.[62]

Repeat of Execution in Case of Criminal's Survival

If after the execution of the punishment, the criminal survives for any reason, a group of jurists believe that they must be executed again.[63] Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi has considered the re-execution of such an individual necessary if their crime is proven by the testimony of witnesses, but if the criminal themselves confessed to the crime, they can be pardoned at the discretion of the Sharia Judge.[64] Nevertheless, in the view of some legal scholars, a person who has survived the implementation of the sentence no longer has a crime to be pardoned or executed for.[65] Some researchers also believe that if this issue occurs in a ta'ziri execution, given that this type of execution has no Sharia text and also in the sacred Sharia, the principle regarding human lives is based on precaution, it is necessary to refrain from re-executing them.[66]

Notes

  1. ↑ Īmānī, Farhang-i iṣṭilāḥāt-i ḥuqūq-i kiyfarī, 1382 SH, p. 64; Āqāmīrsalīm, "Barrasī-yi mujāzāt-hā-yi Islāmī bā tamarkuz bar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 53.
  2. ↑ Sura al-Ma'ida, verse 33.
  3. ↑ Sura al-Ma'ida, verse 33.
  4. ↑ Sura Hud, verse 91.
  5. ↑ Sura al-Baqara, verse 49.
  6. ↑ Āqāmīrsalīm, "Barrasī-yi mujāzāt-hā-yi Islāmī bā tamarkuz bar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 54.
  7. ↑ For instance, see: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 7, p. 271; al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, Man lā yaḥḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 4, p. 23; al-Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 29, p. 52; al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 1422 AH, vol. 9, p. 4.
  8. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 7, p. 282.
  9. ↑ For instance, see: al-Shaykh al-Ṭūsī, al-Khilāf, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 178; Sabzawārī, Muhadhdhab al-aḥkām, 1413 AH, vol. 28, p. 182; al-Jazīrī et al., al-Fiqh ʿalā l-madhāhib al-arbaʿa, 1419 AH, vol. 5, p. 365.
  10. ↑ Ṭārimī, "Kāwish-i naw dar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 140.
  11. ↑ Safdarī, Amīr-ḥusayn, et al., "Barrasī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām", Civilica website.
  12. ↑ For instance, see: Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 SH, vol. 1, p. 602 and vol. 12, p. 107; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 432 and vol. 13, p. 91; al-Suyūṭī, Tafsīr al-Jalālayn, 1416 AH, pp. 30 and 288.
  13. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 SH, vol. 1, p. 605; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 433.
  14. ↑ Ṭārimī, "Kāwish-i naw dar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 141.
  15. ↑ al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, al-Muqniʿ, 1415 AH, p. 428; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1369 SH, vol. 41, pp. 318–320.
  16. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 141; Muʾassisih-yi Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif al-Fiqh al-Islāmī, Farhang-i Fiqh-i Fārsī, 1386 SH, vol. 5, p. 497.
  17. ↑ al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām al-sharʿiyya, Muʾassisat Āl al-Bayt (a), vol. 2, p. 222; Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 141.
  18. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 147.
  19. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1404 AH, vol. 41, p. 432.
  20. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, pp. 170-171.
  21. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī Ḥāʾirī, Riyāḍ al-masāʾil, Muʾassisat Āl al-Bayt (a), vol. 2, p. 496; Mūsawī Ardabīlī, Fiqh al-ḥudūd wa l-taʿzīrāt, 1427 AH, vol. 3, p. 558.
  22. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Tafṣīl al-sharīʿa: al-Ḥudūd, 1422 AH, p. 639.
  23. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i Fiqh, 1426 AH, vol. 3, p. 493.
  24. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1404 AH, vol. 41, p. 331.
  25. ↑ Sārīkhānī and Āqābābāʾī, "Wākāwī-yi mustanadāt-i fiqhī-yi iʿdām-i taʿzīrī", p. 9.
  26. ↑ Sulṭānī and Sulaymānī, "Dirangī dar mubānī-yi fiqhī-yi iʿdām-i taʿzīrī-yi mujaddad", p. 128.
  27. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1404 AH, vol. 41, p. 448.
  28. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 136.
  29. ↑ Shams Nātarī, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām, 1387 SH, p. 58.
  30. ↑ Shams Nātarī, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām, 1387 SH, p. 60.
  31. ↑ Khusrawshāhī, Falsafih-yi qiṣāṣ az dīdgāh-i Islām, 1380 SH, pp. 191-196.
  32. ↑ Sura al-Baqara, verse 179.
  33. ↑ al-Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 29, p. 53, hadith 6.
  34. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 SH, vol. 1, p. 606.
  35. ↑ Āqāmīrsalīm, Marḍīyih Sādāt, "Barrasī-yi mujāzāt-hā-yi Islāmī bā tamarkuz bar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 55.
  36. ↑ Shams Nātarī, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām, 1387 SH, pp. 10-12.
  37. ↑ Shams Nātarī, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām, 1387 SH, p. 10.
  38. ↑ Mostetter, Vandīdāt-i Avestā, p. 191, chapter 9, verse 49.
  39. ↑ Holy Bible, Leviticus, chapter 20, verses 10 and 13.
  40. ↑ Shams Nātarī, Barrasī-yi taṭbīqī-yi mujāزāt-i iʿdām, 1387 SH, p. 18.
  41. ↑ Āqāmīrsalīm, "Barrasī-yi mujāzāt-hā-yi Islāmī bā tamarkuz bar mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 53.
  42. ↑ Taqī-pūr, ʿAlī-riḍā, "Taʾthīr-i niẓām-i ḥuqūq-i bashar bar asāsnāmih-yi dādgāh-hā-yi kiyfarī-yi bayn al-millalī dar zamīnih-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 121.
  43. ↑ Taqī-pūr, ʿAlī-riḍā, "Taʾthīr-i niẓām-i ḥuqūq-i bashar bar asāsnāmih-yi dādgāh-hā-yi kiyfarī-yi bayn al-millalī dar zamīnih-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 121.
  44. ↑ Mahdī-zādih, Mujāzāt-i iʿdām wa ḥuqūq-i bashar, p. 78; [" درخواست عمادالدین باقی"], Ensaaf News portal.
  45. ↑ Ṣādiqī, Ḥuqūq-i jazā-yi bayn al-millal, 1377 SH, pp. 372-373.
  46. ↑ Ṣādiqī, and Zabīḥ-zādih, "iʿdām", p. 38.
  47. ↑ Mīrmuḥammad-ṣādiqī, "Kānkāshī dar taʾthīr-i irʿābī-yi mujāzāt-i iʿdām", p. 5.
  48. ↑ Khazāʾī, "Mujāzāt-i iʿdām bar asās-i kunfarāns-i bayn al-millalī-yi Sīrākīz", p. 114.
  49. ↑ Khazāʾī, "Mujāzāt-i iʿdām bar asās-i kunfarāns-i bayn al-millalī-yi Sīrākīz", p. 114.
  50. ↑ For instance, see: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 7, pp. 190, 199, and 200; al-Shaykh al-Ṭūsī, Tahdhīb al-aḥkām, 1407 AH, vol. 10, pp. 52 and 53; al-Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 28, pp. 158 and 162.
  51. ↑ For instance, see: Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, pp. 141 and 147; al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām al-sharʿiyya, Muʾassisat Āl al-Bayt (a), vol. 2, p. 224; Mūsawī Ardabīlī, Fiqh al-ḥudūd wa l-taʿzīrāt, 1427 AH, vol. 3, p. 609.
  52. ↑ Qudratī, "Taḥlīl-i mashrūʿiyyat-i iʿdām-i bidūn-i dard", pp. 41 and 42.
  53. ↑ al-Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 28, p. 158, hadith 1.
  54. ↑ Yazdī, "Nuktih-ʾī dar mujāzāt-i liwāṭ", p. 84.
  55. ↑ Imām Khomeinī, Ṣaḥīfih-yi Imām, 1389 SH, vol. 20, p. 452.
  56. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, Amir-e Qalam Publications, vol. 1, p. 505, question 1912.
  57. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir, Istiftāʾāt-i jadīd, 1427 AH, vol. 3, p. 369, question 948.
  58. ↑ "Āʾīn-nāmih-yi naḥwih-yi ijrā-yi aḥkām", National Portal of Laws and Regulations of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
  59. ↑ "Ḥukm-i iʿdām bā tazrīq-i samm", Shabestan News Agency.
  60. ↑ "Agar Shāriʿ naḥwih-yi ijrā-yi ḥukm-i iʿdām rā taʿyīn nakardih bāshad", Information Portal of the Office of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Sadeq Rouhani.
  61. ↑ Rabāḥ, ʿUqūbat al-iʿdām ḥall am mushkila, 1981 CE, p. 227.
  62. ↑ Rabāḥ, ʿUqūbat al-iʿdām ḥall am mushkila, 1981 CE, p. 228.
  63. ↑ Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, Amir-e Qalam, vol. 2, p. 436, question 161; Bahjat, Istiftāʾāt, 1428 AH, vol. 4, p. 475, question 6197; Ṣāfī Gulpāyigānī, 1417 AH, Jāmiʿ al-aḥkām, vol. 2, pp. 362 and 363, question 2135.
  64. ↑ "Zandih māndan-i mujrim baʿd az ijrā-yi mujāzāt-i rajam", Information Portal of the Office of Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi.
  65. ↑ "Fardī kih pas az ijrā-yi ḥukm zandih māndih", ISNA News Agency.
  66. ↑ Sulṭānī and Sulaymānī, "Dirangī dar mubānī-yi fiqhī-yi iʿdām-i taʿzīrī-yi mujaddad", pp. 149 and 150.

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