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Manāqib-khānī (Persian: مَناقِب‌خوانی) is a ritual involving the loud recitation of poetry and prose extolling the virtues (manāqib) of the Shi'a Imams (a) in public thoroughfares. The book Al-Naqd is considered the earliest and most authoritative source for understanding the tradition of Manāqib-khānī.

Definition and Status

Manāqib-khānī, or Manqabat-khānī, is defined as the ritualistic recitation of poems or texts in public spaces that express the virtues, hadiths, karamas (miracles), and titles of the Shi'a Imams (a), as well as stories related to them.[1] Reports suggest that Manāqib-khānī was sometimes accompanied by the denunciation of certain Sahaba (Companions).[2] Performers of this ritual were referred to as Manāqibī, Manāqib-khān, or Manqabat-khān.[3] In some sources, Manāqib-khānī is categorized under Maddāḥī (panegyric).[4]

Manāqib-khānī is regarded as a contributing factor to the survival and expansion of Shi'ism and the bolstering of the influence of Sayyids and Alawis.[5] Citing Qur'an 42:23 (the Verse of Mawadda), some scholars deem love for the Ahl al-Bayt (a) obligatory for Muslims, arguing that one who loves another must constantly speak their praise.[6] Consequently, it is said that Manāqib-khāns viewed themselves strictly as eulogists of the Ahl al-Bayt (a),[7] although not all of them were Shi'a.[8] Certain sources recount anecdotes indicating the favorable regard of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) toward Manāqib-khāns.[9] According to Rasul Ja'fariyan, the expansion of Manāqib-khānī during the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries was a significant factor in the rise of the Safavids and the spread of Shi'ism in Iran.[10] al-Afandi equated the role of certain Manāqib-khāns in propagating Shi'ism in Iran with that of prominent scholars like Allama al-Hilli and Al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki.[11]

Research indicates that the extensive connection between Manāqib-khāns and Futuwwa organizations is evident in various sources.[12] According to Kashifi, no group within the Futuwwa held a higher rank than the Manāqib-khāns.[13] He also designated Manāqib-khāns as the closest among the People of Tariqa to Prophet Muhammad (s) and the Ahl al-Bayt (a).[14] Kashifi considered Manāqib-khāns worthy of prayer (du'a), praise, and gifts, basing this view on the actions of the Prophet (s), Imam Ali (a), and Imam al-Sajjad (a).[15]

Al-Naqd is considered the first and best source of information about Manāqib-khānī in Shi'a societies.[16]

History

In the mid-6th/12th century, 'Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi noted that Manāqib-khānī was a ritual with ancient roots.[17] Kashifi traced the tradition back to Michael and Gabriel, describing them as the first eulogists of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).[18] He identified Hassan b. Thabit as the first Manāqib-khān among Muslims, citing his poetry concerning the Ghadir as a prime example.[19] It is said that Manāqib-khānī emerged during the Samanid era and became widespread during the Ghaznavid and Seljuk periods, despite opposition from rulers.[20] The ritual reached its zenith during the Buyid period,[21] a development that provoked the ire of Baghdad's Hanbalis and led to reprisals.[22] 'Abd al-Jalil al-Razi[23] attested to the prosperity of Manāqib-khānī in the 6th/12th century within Shi'a regions.[24] The text of Al-Naqd mentions government crackdowns on Manāqib-khāns during this period.[25]

Ja'fariyan posits that the composition of Manāqib poetry peaked among Iranian Shi'as in the 7th/13th, 8th/14th, and 9th/15th centuries.[26] He notes that while many of these poems have been lost, extant works indicate the genre's extensiveness.[27] During this era, Manqabat-khānī became an established tradition in Shi'a areas and even among Twelver Sunnis.[28] In the 8th/14th century, the Sarbadars government reportedly fostered the prevalence of Manāqib poetry by poets such as Ibn Yamin.[29] The 9th/15th-century work Rawdat al-shuhada is credited with transforming the practice; following its compilation in the Safavid period, Manāqib-khānī and Rawda-khānī (the recitation of Rawdat al-shuhada) effectively merged.[30]

During the Safavid period, Manāqib-khānī reportedly grew significantly, with the Fityan (members of Futuwwa) rushing to assist the government in promoting Love for Ahl al-Bayt (a).[31] In this era, a faction of Manāqib-khāns known as *Tabarrāʾiyyān* would publicly curse the Three Caliphs while reciting the virtues of Imam Ali (a).[32] The Safavid period marks the beginning of the ritual's decline and its replacement by other practices.[33] By the Qajar period, most Manāqib-khāns were reportedly Sufis belonging to Shi'a Sufi orders.[34] These dervish Manāqib-khāns were predominantly associated with the Khaksariyya order.[35] Eventually, Manāqib-khānī gradually separated from Sufism and continued as a professional vocation.[36]

Establishment of Sunni Fada'il-khani in Opposition to Shi'a Manaqib-khani

It is said that Shi'a Manāqib-khānī provoked anger among extremist Sunnis.[37] Jalal al-Din Muhaddith Urmawi, referencing Al-Naqd,[38] attributed this hostility to the fact that Manāqib-khānī served as an invitation to a specific denomination and effectively influenced public opinion.[39] Relying on reports from Al-Naqd,[40] it is stated that as Manāqib-khānī grew, Sunnis adopted a similar strategy; they engaged "Faḍāʾil-khāns" to counter the Shi'as and to disseminate the virtues of the opponents of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).[41]

According to the analysis of Muhammad Ja'far Mahjub (d. 1416/1996), a scholar of literature and folklore, the text of Al-Naqd[42] suggests that Faḍāʾil-khāns assembled irreligious individuals to recite tales of ancient Persian heroism in public gatherings to counter the virtues of Imam Ali (a).[43] Mahjub notes that while 'Abd al-Jalil al-Razi quoted eloquent Manāqib poetry from Sana'i and Qawami Razi, the verses he cited from the Faḍāʾilīs were comparatively weak and vulgar.[44] In contrast to the miraculous events attributed to Shi'a Manāqib-khāns,[45] 'Abd al-Jalil al-Razi recounted calamitous misfortunes befalling the Faḍāʾil-khāns.[46]

The book Futuwwat nama-yi sultani by Mulla Husayn Kashifi Sabziwari, considered a valuable source for understanding Manāqib-khānī and its protocols.[47]

Manaqibis: Manaqib-khans and Manaqib-composers

Rasul Ja'fariyan identifies Bundar Razi (433/1041-42) as one of the earliest Shi'a poets to compose Manāqib.[48] 'Abd al-Jalil al-Razi listed several Manāqib-composing poets, including Kisa'i and Sana'i.[49] Prior to Sana'i, Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiyani is also counted among Manāqib composers.[50] From the 6th/12th century, the Manāqib compositions of Qawami Razi,[51] 'Abd al-Malik b. Banan Qummi,[52] and Abu l-Mafakhir Razi[53] are noted.

In the 7th/13th century, the Manāqib compositions and recitations of Hasan Kashi gained prominence. Ja'fariyan describes him as a luminary of Manqabat-khānī[54] and the leader of Manāqib-khāns,[55] considering his role in the spread of Shi'ism in Iran equal to that of Allama al-Hilli and Al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki.[56] Many Manāqib works by Kashi have survived, the most famous being his Haft-band, which served as a model for numerous Manāqib poems.[57] Sources state that Kashi composed exclusively in praise of the Imams (a).[58] Traveling in the guise of a dervish, Kashi recited the virtues of Imam Ali (a) in public thoroughfares.[59] Reports also indicate that he performed Manāqib-khānī in the Shrine of Imam al-Rida (a).[60]

In the 9th/15th century, Ibn Husam al-Khusfi was regarded as one of the greatest Manqabat composers, with his works seen as evidence of his profound Shi'a historical understanding.[61] During the same period, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī lists several lesser-known Manāqib-khāns: Sayyid Hamza Kuchak, Darwish Muhammad Ali Gharra-khan Tabarsi, Sayyid Amir Haj Amuli, Sahib Shah Kharaqani, and Akhi Ali Tuni.[62] Mulla Husayn Wa'iz Kashifi is also counted among the Manāqib-khāns of this era.[63] In later periods, figures such as Muhtasham Kashani, Huma Shirazi, Sayyid Kazim Bulbul Kabuli, and Barat Ali Zabulistani are listed among Manāqib-khāns and composers.[64]

Structure and Content

'Abd al-Jalil al-Qazwini al-Razi described the content of Manāqib-khānī as centered on Tawhid (monotheism) and Zuhd (asceticism).[65] According to Muhaddith Urmawi, Manāqib-khānī featured didactic themes, such as counsel, invitations to worship God, affirmations of Divine Justice (ʿAdl), and refutations of Determinism (Jabr).[66] It also included elucidations on the transience of the world, encouragement regarding the Hereafter, and expressions of gratitude for being a Shi'a through the invocation of the names of the Imams (a) and the conditions of Imamate, such as Nass, Knowledge, and Infallibility.[67] Recurring themes in Manāqib texts include: praising the Twelve Imams,[68] recounting the tragedy of the Event of Karbala,[69] the poet's boasting of their success in being a Shi'a and praising the Infallibles (a),[70] challenging other poetry and poets—particularly Ferdowsi—[71] referencing the Shahnameh,[72] and utilizing the names and attributes of Shahnameh heroes within Manāqib texts.[73]

Mahjub interprets the book Al-Naqd as indicating that Sunnis perceived the content of Manāqib-khānī as exaggerated and laden with myth-making.[74] He notes that exaggerated and baseless stories were indeed incorporated into some Manāqib-khānī texts.[75] Citing a text from Dawlatshah Samarqandi,[76] some researchers note that certain poetic texts used by Manāqib-khāns were termed "Wilāyat-nāma."[77] These works typically consisted of poems recounting the heroism and miracles of Imam Ali (a) and were largely mythical in nature.[78] It is said that the discourse of Manāqib-khāns had long been mingled with myths and baseless content that was not accepted by scholarly Shi'a authorities.[79]

Manners and Tools

The book Al-Naqd indicates that Manāqib-khāns would wander through public spaces to recite virtues.[80] It is said they were often encircled by fellow Shi'as who provided them with financial support.[81] Some sources suggest that Manāqib-khāns occasionally held gatherings (*maʿraka*) in fixed locations rather than roaming.[82] They employed specific attire and methods designed to maximize their impact on the audience.[83] Kashifi categorized Manāqib-khāns into three types: the *Sāda-khān*, who recited only poetry; the *Gharrā-khān*, who recited virtues solely in prose; and the *Muraṣṣaʿ-khān*, who blended prose and poetry and were considered superior to the other two groups.[84]

Regarding the etiquette of Manāqib-khānī, Kashifi stated that the performer must possess such piety and purity that they feel no shame before the souls of the Infallibles (a). Furthermore, they should perform acts of obedience and worship according to the instructions of the Ahl al-Bayt (a), avoid reciting praise solely for remuneration, and refrain from exaggeration.[85] He listed twenty necessary attributes for Manāqib-khāns, including honesty and Zuhd (asceticism),[86] and emphasized they must be free from thirty vices, such as lying and oppression.[87] The tools of the trade included a spear, a Tugh, a Shadda, a tablecloth, a lamp, and a Tabarzīn (battle axe).[88] Kashifi cited stories from the lives of the Infallibles (a) to explain the selection of these items.[89] He described the Tugh as a spear topped with a cloth to demarcate the boundaries of the Manāqib-khān's gathering.[90] The Shadda was a blessed object from the shrine of an Imam (a) tied to the Tugh; Kashifi attributed the origin of the Shadda to Imam Ali (a) at the Battle of Uhud.[91]

Notes

  1. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 19; Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», pp. 467–468.
  2. ↑ Izdī & Zīrakī, «Manāqib-khānī dar dawra-yi Āl-i Būya», p. 25.
  3. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  4. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 17; Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 10.
  5. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 88; Izdī & Zīrakī, «Manāqib-khānī dar dawra-yi Āl-i Būya», p. 46.
  6. ↑ See for example: Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 280.
  7. ↑ Kāshī, Tārīkh-i Muḥammadī, 1377 Sh, editor's intro, p. 15.
  8. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1227; Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  9. ↑ See for example: Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ, 1414 AH, vol. 4, p. 1789.
  10. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 100.
  11. ↑ Afandī, Riyāḍ al-ʿulamāʾ, 1401 AH, vol. 1, p. 308.
  12. ↑ See for example: Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 10.
  13. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 280.
  14. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 281.
  15. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 283.
  16. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1209; Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 8.
  17. ↑ ʿAbd al-Jalīl al-Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 77.
  18. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 282.
  19. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, pp. 282–283.
  20. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  21. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  22. ↑ See for example: Tanūkhī, Nishwār al-muḥāḍara, 1391 AH, vol. 2, p. 233.
  23. ↑ ʿAbd al-Jalīl al-Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 77.
  24. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  25. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 108.
  26. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 89.
  27. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 89.
  28. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», pp. 91–92.
  29. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 98.
  30. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 12.
  31. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 12.
  32. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 12.
  33. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  34. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 15.
  35. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 14.
  36. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 17.
  37. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 19; Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 88.
  38. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 77.
  39. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 19.
  40. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, pp. 64–65.
  41. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 88; Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 8.
  42. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 67.
  43. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1214.
  44. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1211.
  45. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, pp. 109–110.
  46. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 112.
  47. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1209; Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 81.
  48. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 84.
  49. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, pp. 231–232.
  50. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 86.
  51. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 232.
  52. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 230; Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 504.
  53. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 86.
  54. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 90.
  55. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 92.
  56. ↑ Afandī, Riyāḍ al-ʿulamāʾ, 1401 AH, vol. 1, p. 308.
  57. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», pp. 90–91.
  58. ↑ Dawlatshāh Samarqandī, Tadhkirat al-shuʿarā, 1382 Sh, p. 297.
  59. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», pp. 8–9.
  60. ↑ Kātib, Tārīkh-i jadīd-i Yazd, 1357 Sh, p. 79.
  61. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, «Murūrī bar manqabat-i Imāmān», p. 98; Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 9.
  62. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 126.
  63. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 12.
  64. ↑ Riḍāyī, «Manāqib-khānī», p. 468.
  65. ↑ Qazwīnī Rāzī, Al-Naqḍ, 1358 Sh, p. 577.
  66. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 21.
  67. ↑ Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 21.
  68. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», pp. 22–24.
  69. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», pp. 24–25.
  70. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 18.
  71. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», pp. 18–19.
  72. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 27.
  73. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», pp. 21–22.
  74. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», pp. 1212–1213.
  75. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1223.
  76. ↑ Dawlatshāh Samarqandī, Tadhkirat al-shuʿarā, 1382 Sh, pp. 436–437.
  77. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 17.
  78. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 17.
  79. ↑ Afshārī, «Justujūyī dar tārīkh-i manāqib-khānī», p. 17.
  80. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1211; Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 18.
  81. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1211.
  82. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1216; Qawāmī Rāzī, Dīwān-i Qawāmī Rāzī, 1374 AH, editor's intro, p. 19.
  83. ↑ Maḥjūb, «Az faḍāyil wa manāqib-khānī tā rawḍa-khānī», p. 1228.
  84. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 286.
  85. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 284.
  86. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 284.
  87. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 285.
  88. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 280.
  89. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, pp. 286–287.
  90. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 288.
  91. ↑ Kāshifī Sabziwārī, Futuwwat-nāma-yi sulṭānī, 1355 Sh, p. 291.

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  • Qawāmī Rāzī, Badr al-Dīn. Dīwān-i Sharaf al-Shuʿarāʾ Badr al-Dīn Qawāmī Rāzī. Edited by Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥaddith Urmawī. Tehran, Chāpkhāna-yi Sipihr, 1374 AH.
  • Qazwīnī Rāzī, ʿAbd al-Jalīl b. Abī l-Ḥusayn. Baʿḍ mathālib al-nawāṣib fī naqḍ baʿḍ faḍāʾiḥ al-rawāfiḍ. Edited by Mīr Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥaddith Urmawī. Tehran, Anjuman-i Āthār-i Millī, 1358 Sh.
  • Riḍāyī, Amīr Ḥusayn. "Manāqib-khānī". In Farhang-i sūg-i Shīʿī. Supervised by Muḥsin Ḥusām Maẓāhirī. Tehran, Khayma, 1395 Sh.
  • Tanūkhī, Muḥsin b. ʿAlī. Nishwār al-muḥāḍara wa akhbār al-mudhākara. N.p., n.n., 1391 AH.
  • Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Yāqūt b. ʿAbd Allāh. Muʿjam al-udabāʾ. Edited by Iḥsān ʿAbbās. Beirut, Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1414 AH.
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