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This page is about Natural Evil. For the general problem of evil and moral evil, see Problem of evil and Moral evil.

Natural Evil (Arabic: الشرور الطبيعي ), in contrast to moral evil, refers to adversities and calamities arising from natural causes independent of human intervention, such as floods, earthquakes, and diseases. This category of evil presents significant challenges to theological doctrines, particularly Tawhid, the existence of God, and divine attributes such as justice, power, knowledge, and benevolence. For instance, the question arises: if God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, why do disasters like floods and earthquakes exist? How can the existence of evils that inflict pain and suffering be reconciled with divine justice?

Certain theological scholars posit that the defining criterion of evil is the resultant pain and suffering. Consequently, if natural phenomena such as floods and earthquakes caused no harm, pain, or suffering, they would not be classified as evil.

Muslim theologians and philosophers have proffered various theodicies to resolve the problem of natural evil and reconcile it with religious tenets. These responses include the role of sins in the emergence of natural disasters, the view of evils as a form of divine punishment, and reliance on God's wisdom and higher purpose (maslaha). Additionally, some theologians have proposed the Theory of Compensation ( 'iwad), arguing that God provides a reward for every instance of natural evil sufficient to make the endurance of the resulting pain and suffering acceptable to any rational being.

Some Muslim philosophers regard evil as being of the nature of non-existence ( 'adam), or as a source of destruction and non-being; therefore, it requires no creator. Others maintain that absolute evil—or an entity whose evil outweighs its good—does not exist in the cosmos. Furthermore, the limited evils present in the physical realm are viewed as necessary concomitants of the nature of the material world. Because the material world is a realm defined by change, transformation, conflict, and interference (tazahum), the occurrence of minor evils is inevitable. Others argue that what is designated as evil is relative, perceived as such only in comparison or relation to other entities; however, considered in terms of its own existence or other aspects, it is not accounted as evil.

In addition to theological and philosophical responses, scholars have enumerated specific benefits and functional roles for natural evils. These include serving as a means for divine trial and the testing of human beings. Furthermore, evils serve to awaken individuals from negligence and provide lessons from worldly events. Moreover, adversities can reveal underlying goodness and benefits, and for this reason, their existence is deemed necessary.

Conceptology

Natural evils are defined as adversities occurring due to natural factors[1] without human intervention, resulting in pain and suffering. Examples include storms, earthquakes, floods, volcanoes, diseases,[2] and certain disabilities.[3] Some researchers believe that the criterion for categorizing a phenomenon as evil is the pain and suffering it generates. in other words, an event is considered evil only if it causes harm or the loss of life and assets; if it entails no harm or suffering, it is not classified as evil.[4]

Natural evils are divided into three categories: A) Pure natural evils in which humans have no intervention, such as floods and earthquakes. B) Evils resulting from human negligence, where human actions influence their emergence, such as disasters caused by environmental manipulation. C) Controllable evils, where human intervention can manage or mitigate damage, such as constructing earthquake-resistant housing.[5]

Contrasted with natural evil is moral evil, or voluntary evil, which originates from the misuse of human free will, such as murder, theft, and oppression.[6]

The Problem of Natural Evil and Religious Challenges

The problem of evil, particularly natural evil, constitutes a perennial issue in creedal theology, philosophy, and kalam[7] that intersects with the doctrines of monotheism,[8] the existence of God, and divine attributes. It creates specific challenges regarding justice, power, knowledge, and divine benevolence.[9] Consequently, providing robust responses to this problem is essential for the preservation of religious faith.[10] In the Hadith of Tawhid al-Mufaddal, Imam al-Sadiq (a) notes that some individuals utilize natural evils to deny the Creator and argue for an inconsistency within God's attributes.[11] Scholars have observed that within the Islamic intellectual tradition, the problem of evil is primarily discussed in relation to potential contradictions with divine attributes and justice, whereas in Christian theology, it is often raised as a challenge to the very existence of God.[12]

Humanity has always confronted events such as floods, earthquakes, storms, and diseases. These phenomena raise fundamental questions regarding their relationship to the Divine: if God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, why do such events occur, and why does He not prevent them?[13] How can one maintain belief in God's justice[14] when these events threaten human well-being?[15]

Muhammad Mahdi al-Naraqi and other Muslim philosophers assert that the world has been created in the best possible form.[16] The question remains, however: why do evils and disasters exist despite this optimal system?[17] This dilemma led some dualists to posit two separate creators for good and evil.[18] Muslim philosophers inquire how evil can proceed from God, who is Pure Good.[19] Theologians have also examined this subject under the rubric of "pains and rewards" (al-alam wa al-a'wad).[20] The problem of natural evil and its tension with divine attributes is also addressed extensively in modern theology[21] and the philosophy of religion.[22]

Imam al-Rida (a): Disease for the believer is a means of purification and mercy, and for the disbeliever, it is a punishment and a curse. Verily, disease does not cease to afflict the believer until no sin remains upon them.[23]

The Role of Sins in the Emergence of Natural Evils

Citing a specific corpus of verses[24] and narrations,[25] some Muslim theologians argue that human misconduct and sinful behavior actively contribute to the emergence of natural evils.[26] Exegetes maintain, based on Quranic verses,[27] that calamities and adversities striking a society are often the result of sins committed by humans, although God forgives many of them. In this context, the causal link between human actions and the creation of evil is considered one of the Divine Traditions (sunan).[28]

A narration from Prophet Muhammad (s) states that whenever adultery (zina) becomes prevalent, people are afflicted with plagues and unprecedented diseases; if they engage in fraud (tatfif), they face famine and hardship; and if they withhold zakat, they are deprived of rain.[29] Conversely, narrations indicate that the good deeds of righteous people are effective in repelling punishment and evils.[30] Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi asserts that without the guidance of the Qur'an and narrations, humanity could never have comprehended the influence of human actions on the occurrence of disasters, though the precise mechanism of this reality remains partially obscure to us.[31]

According to Murtada Mutahhari, the faithful believe in God's attributes (Omniscience, Wisdom, Power) and hold that God never commits injustice. Thus, every phenomenon in the world is based on a wisdom and purpose that may not be immediately intelligible to humans. Therefore, if evils exist in the world, their cause must be sought within Divine Wisdom.[32]

Theological and Philosophical Solutions

Muslim philosophers and theologians have proffered various theodicies to address natural evils. Some of the most significant include:

Theory of Compensation and Redress for Evils

Main article: Theory of Compensation

Muslim theologians such as al-Sayyid al-Murtada and 'Allama al-Hilli maintain that it is incumbent upon God to provide compensation for evils, pains, and sufferings in which the human agent has no intervention, and to offer redress ( 'iwad) for them; otherwise, such evils would constitute injustice.[33] In their view, this compensation or reward must outweigh the evils and pain to such a degree that any rational person would consent to enduring the pain in exchange for the reward; otherwise, the compensation is futile.[34] The redress of such evils is viewed as a binding right rather than a mere act of divine grace or favor.[35] This compensation may be granted in this world or in the Hereafter.[36]

Non-existence of Absolute Evil and Excessive Evil in the World

A number of Muslim philosophers, following Aristotle,[37] have classified existents into five categories regarding the dichotomy of good and evil: 1) Pure Good, such as the world of immaterial beings and the Perfect Humans, in whom no evil exists; 2) Beings whose good outweighs their evil, such as water and fire, which, despite offering many benefits, may cause harm; 3) Beings whose evil outweighs their good; 4) Beings whose good and evil are equal; and 5) Absolute Evil, wherein no good exists. They consider the last three categories to be non-existent.[38]

According to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, philosophers address the question of how evils proceed from God by asserting that no evil is issued or created by God, who is Pure Good. This is because the creation of beings whose evil is minor and whose good is dominant is not classified as evil; rather, it is the essence of good.[39]

Evils as Inseparable Concomitants of the Material World

Philosophers like Mulla Sadra and Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i argue that natural evils are exclusive to the material realm and are necessary concomitants of its nature. This is because the material world is inherently composed of change, transformation, conflict, and interference.[40] These features are intrinsic to the material world; in their absence, the material world would not exist. Therefore, the choice is between the material world existing with these characteristics or not existing at all. Divine Grace and Mercy necessitate the creation of this world; its non-creation would contradict Divine Wisdom, as its good vastly outweighs its evils.[41] Furthermore, Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi posits that while God's primary objective in creating the world is goodness, the realization of these goods necessitates the existence of some evils. Thus, the Divine Will pertains to evils only accidentally (bil-arad) and secondarily.[42]

The Privation Theory of Evil

Some Shi'a philosophers and theologians maintain that the existence of everything is inherently good and no being is evil in itself.[43] Conversely, they regard evil as ontological non-existence (privation),[44] meaning that evil is a source of non-being and destruction.[45] Therefore, evil requires no creator, as creation pertains specifically to existence and being.[46] Everything designated as evil is so because it entails non-existence; for instance, blindness is simply the privation of sight, and death is the loss of life. Natural evils like floods and earthquakes are categorized as evil due to the consequent loss of life and property; if these events did not lead to such losses, they would not be considered evil.[47]

Based on this view, absolute evil does not exist in the world; if an evil exists, it is evil from one aspect and good from another.[48] Many Muslim and Christian thinkers have utilized this theory to resolve the problem of evil.[49] However, some have objected that perceptual evils, such as pain and suffering, exist positively and are not merely privative.[50] Fakhr al-Razi also considered evil, defined as pain and that which leads to it, to be an existential matter.[51] Mulla Sadra and 'Allama Tabataba'i have addressed and resolved this objection.[52]

Relativity of Evils

A number of Muslim philosophers have argued that evils are relative rather than real. This means that what is designated as evil is perceived as such only in comparison or relation to other entities; however, considered in terms of its own existence or from other perspectives, it is not accounted as evil.[53] For example, the venom of scorpions and snakes is not evil or bad for the creatures themselves, as it serves as their means of defense. It is considered evil only in relation to others, whom it harms.[54] Therefore, nothing exists that is entirely evil, possessing no aspect of good.[55]

Combined Solution

Some thinkers, not content with a single solution, have addressed the problem by synthesizing the aforementioned explanations. Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, in response to the problem of evil, stated that on one hand, the evils and deficiencies of the world are inseparable concomitants of the material realm; on the other hand, the goods and benefits of the world vastly outnumber these evils. Thus, abandoning preponderant good to avoid minor evil would be contrary to wisdom and a contradiction of divine purpose. Furthermore, these minor evils themselves possess numerous benefits and positive effects.[56]

Evils as Divine Trial and Awakening

In addition to the theological and philosophical solutions proposed for natural evils, scholars have enumerated specific benefits and functional roles for them, including:

  • Divine Trial: Natural evils are viewed as a means of divine trial.[57] According to Murtada Mutahhari, God utilizes evils to guide individuals toward their deserving perfection and to elevate the spiritual rank of His servants.[58] In his view, evils and pain provide the fertile ground necessary for human growth and evolution, as many human perfections flourish and are attained only through the experience of adversity and suffering.[59] The concept of spiritual exaltation and human evolution through adversity is generally considered applicable specifically to natural evils.[60] Qur'an 21:35 and Qur'an 2:155 emphasize the testing of humans through evils, hardships, and disasters.[61]
  • Awakening from Negligence: The existence of evils, disasters, and calamities is considered a catalyst for awakening from spiritual negligence and drawing lessons from worldly events.[62] Verses such as Qur'an 7:94, 130 and Qur'an 32:21 allude to this function of evil.[63]
  • Evils as Manifestors of Goods: Evils and adversities are deemed necessary insofar as they facilitate the manifestation of goodness and benefits. If evils and ugliness did not exist, goodness and beauty would remain unappreciated or unnoticed. For instance, were there no ugliness in the world, the beauty of the beautiful would not be perceived or understood.[64] This concept relates to human cognitive structure: humans know things, including good and evil, through their opposites, and without the opposite, an entity remains unknowable even if it is self-evident.[65]

Other benefits attributed to natural evils include the discovery of nature's secrets and the advancement of science,[66] the appreciation of divine blessings,[67] and the growth and flourishing of human talents in the face of hardship and pain.[68]

Notes

  1. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 519.
  2. ↑ Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 125-126.
  3. ↑ Faālī, Muḥammad Taqī, Kalām-i jadīd, 1386 Sh, p. 113.
  4. ↑ Qadardān Qarāmalikī, Muḥammad Ḥasan, Khudā wa mas'ala-yi shar, 1388 Sh, pp. 26-27; Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, p. 126; Muḥammadriḍā'ī, Muḥammad, Kalām-i jadīd bā rūykard-i taṭbīqī, 1390 Sh, p. 309.
  5. ↑ "Chirā shurūr-i ṭabī'ī wujūd dārad?", Website of Ustād Naṣīrī Gīlānī.
  6. ↑ Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, p. 125.
  7. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāyigānī, 'Alī, Kalām-i taṭbīqī (1), 1399 Sh, p. 171; Faālī, Muḥammad Taqī, Kalām-i jadīd, 1386 Sh, p. 112.
  8. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāyigānī, 'Alī, 'Aqā'id-i istidlālī 1, p. 207.
  9. ↑ Muḥammadriḍā'ī, Muḥammad, Kalām-i jadīd bā rūykard-i taṭbīqī, 1390 Sh, pp. 291-292.
  10. ↑ Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 123-125.
  11. ↑ See: Mufaḍḍal b. 'Umar, Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, pp. 167-168.
  12. ↑ Faālī, Muḥammad Taqī, Kalām-i jadīd, 1386 Sh, p. 113.
  13. ↑ Muḥammadriḍā'ī, Muḥammad, Kalām-i jadīd bā rūykard-i taṭbīqī, 1390 Sh, p. 291.
  14. ↑ Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, p. 124.
  15. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāyigānī, 'Alī, Kalām-i taṭbīqī (1), 1399 Sh, p. 172.
  16. ↑ al-Narāqī, Muḥammad Mahdī, Jāmi' al-afkār, 1423 AH, vol. 2, p. 7.
  17. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, p. 62.
  18. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāyigānī, 'Alī, Kalām-i taṭbīqī (1), 1399 Sh, p. 171.
  19. ↑ For example see: Ibn Sīnā, Ḥusayn b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Ilāhiyyāt min kitāb al-Shifā', 1418 AH, p. 448; al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn and Fakhr al-Rāzī, Muḥammad b. 'Umar, Sharḥ al-Ishārāt, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 78; Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, p. 72; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 281.
  20. ↑ For example see: al-Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, 'Alī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Dhakhīra fī 'ilm al-kalām, 1411 AH, pp. 211, 239; al-Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Ja'far b. al-Ḥasan, al-Maslak fī uṣūl al-dīn, 1373 Sh, p. 104; al-Ḥimṣī al-Rāzī, Maḥmūd b. 'Alī, al-Munqidh min al-taqlīd, 1412 AH, vol. 1, pp. 307, 330: 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Anwār al-malakūt, 1363 Sh, p. 118.
  21. ↑ For example see: Muḥammadriḍā'ī, Muḥammad, Kalām-i jadīd bā rūykard-i taṭbīqī, 1390 Sh, p. 291; Yūsufiyān, Ḥasan, Kalām-i jadīd, 1390 Sh, p. 139; Faālī, Muḥammad Taqī, Kalām-i jadīd, 1386 Sh, p. 111.
  22. ↑ For example see: Ṣa'b, Adīb, al-Muqaddima fī falsafat al-dīn, 1995, pp. 199-232; Khisht, Muḥammad 'Uthmān, Madkhal ilā falsafat al-dīn, 2001, pp. 125-140; Khusrawpanāh, 'Abd al-Ḥusayn, Masā'il-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafa-yi dīn, 1393 Sh, vol. 1, p. 123.
  23. ↑ Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, Muḥammad b. 'Alī, Thawāb al-a'māl, 1406 AH, p. 193.
  24. ↑ For example see: Qur'an 42:30; Qur'an 30:41; Qur'an 7:96.
  25. ↑ For example see: al-Kulaynī, Muḥammad b. Ya'qūb, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 2, pp. 373-374; Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, Muḥammad b. 'Alī, 'Uyūn akhbār al-Riḍā (a), 1378 AH, vol. 2, p. 29.
  26. ↑ For example see: Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Khudā-shināsī, 1389 Sh, p. 325; Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, pp. 306-307; Rabbānī Gulpāیigānī, 'Alī, "Naqsh-i insān dar shurūr-i ṭabī'ī az nigāh-i waḥy wa 'aql", p. 42.
  27. ↑ Qur'an 13:11; Qur'an 30:41; Qur'an 42:30.
  28. ↑ Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 18, p. 59.
  29. ↑ al-Kulaynī, Muḥammad b. Ya'qūb, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 2, p. 373, hadith 1.
  30. ↑ See: Rabbānī Gulpāyigānī, 'Alī, "Naqsh-i insān dar shurūr-i ṭabī'ī az nigāh-i waḥy wa 'aql", p. 52.
  31. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Khudā-shināsī, 1389 Sh, p. 326.
  32. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 88-89.
  33. ↑ For example see: al-Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, 'Alī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Dhakhīra fī 'ilm al-kalām, 1411 AH, p. 239; 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, pp. 332-333; Fāḍil al-Miqdād, Miqdād b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Nāfi' yawm al-ḥashr, 1370 Sh, p. 33.
  34. ↑ For example see: al-Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, 'Alī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Dhakhīra fī 'ilm al-kalām, 1411 AH, p. 240; 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, p. 337; Fāḍil al-Miqdād, Miqdād b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Nāfi' yawm al-ḥashr, 1370 Sh, p. 33.
  35. ↑ For example see: al-Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, 'Alī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Dhakhīra fī 'ilm al-kalām, 1411 AH, p. 239; 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, p. 332; Fāḍil al-Miqdād, Miqdād b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Nāfi' yawm al-ḥashr, 1370 Sh, p. 34.
  36. ↑ al-Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, 'Alī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Dhakhīra fī 'ilm al-kalām, 1411 AH, p. 241; 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, pp. 336-337; Fāḍil al-Miqdād, Miqdād b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Nāfi' yawm al-ḥashr, 1370 Sh, p. 34.
  37. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, p. 68; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 283.
  38. ↑ al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn, Sharḥ al-Ishārāt wa l-tanbīhāt, 1386 Sh, vol. 3, pp. 934-938; Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, pp. 68-69; Fakhr al-Rāzī, Muḥammad b. 'Umar, Lubāb al-Ishārāt, 1986, p. 179; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 283.
  39. ↑ al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn, Sharḥ al-Ishārāt wa l-tanbīhāt, 1386 Sh, vol. 3, p. 940.
  40. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, pp. 70-71; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 285; Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 524.
  41. ↑ See: Fayyāḍ Lāhījī, 'Abd al-Razzāq, Gawhar-i murād, 1383 Sh, p. 325; Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 524.
  42. ↑ See: Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Khudā-shināsī, 1389 Sh, pp. 387-389.
  43. ↑ For example see: 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, pp. 29-30; Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 4, pp. 120-121 and vol. 7, pp. 58-62; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 281.
  44. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 4, pp. 120-121; 'Allāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Kashf al-murād, 1413 AH, pp. 29-30; Fayyāḍ Lāhījī, 'Abd al-Razzāq, Gawhar-i murād, 1383 Sh, p. 323; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 281.
  45. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, p. 126.
  46. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 524; Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 126, 129, 134.
  47. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 127-128.
  48. ↑ Fayyāḍ Lāhījī, 'Abd al-Razzāq, Gawhar-i murād, 1383 Sh, p. 324.
  49. ↑ Muḥammadriḍā'ī, Muḥammad, Kalām-i jadīd bā rūykard-i taṭbīqī, 1390 Sh, pp. 311-315; Qadardān Qarāmalikī, Muḥammad Ḥasan, Khudā wa mas'ala-yi shar, 1388 Sh, pp. 42-51.
  50. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, p. 63; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 283.
  51. ↑ al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn and Fakhr al-Rāzī, Muḥammad b. 'Umar, Sharḥ al-Ishārāt, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 80.
  52. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm, al-Ḥikma al-muta'āliya, 1981, vol. 7, pp. 63-67; Ṭabāṭabā'ī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Nihāyat al-ḥikma, 1430 AH, vol. 2, p. 283.
  53. ↑ For example see: Ibn Sīnā, Ḥusayn b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Ilāhiyyāt min kitāb al-Shifā', 1418 AH, p. 451; Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 129-131; see: Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Khudā-shināsī, 1389 Sh, p. 389.
  54. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 129-131.
  55. ↑ See: Ibn Sīnā, Ḥusayn b. 'Abd Allāh, al-Ilāhiyyāt min kitāb al-Shifā', 1418 AH, p. 451; Yūsufiyān, Ḥasan, Kalām-i jadīd, 1390 Sh, p. 147.
  56. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 525.
  57. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, Majmū'a-yi āthār, 1389 Sh, vol. 23, p. 753; Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, pp. 307-308.
  58. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, Majmū'a-yi āthār, 1389 Sh, vol. 23, p. 753.
  59. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, Majmū'a-yi āthār, 1389 Sh, vol. 23, p. 751.
  60. ↑ Qadardān Qarāmalikī, Muḥammad Ḥasan, Khudā wa mas'ala-yi shar, 1388 Sh, p. 184.
  61. ↑ Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, pp. 308-309.
  62. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i falsafa, 1401 Sh, vol. 2, p. 525.
  63. ↑ Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, p. 309.
  64. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, 'Adl-i Ilāhī, 1402 Sh, pp. 143-144.
  65. ↑ Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā, Majmū'a-yi āthār, 1389 Sh, vol. 3, pp. 121-124.
  66. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i 'aqā'id, 1384 Sh, p. 167.
  67. ↑ Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, p. 310.
  68. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Muḥammad Taqī, Āmūzish-i 'aqā'id, 1384 Sh, p. 167; Sa'īdī-mihr, Muḥammad, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī (1), 1388 Sh, pp. 307-308.

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