Draft:The Science of Recitation

The Science of Recitation (Arabic: عِلْم القِراءَة) is a branch of the Islamic sciences concerned with the articulation of Qur'anic terms and the identification of variances attributed to specific narrators (rawis). Attributable to factors such as dialectal disparities among Arab tribes and the absence of diacritical marks (i'rab) in the Arabic orthography of the early Islamic period, certain words in the Qur'an have been recited in divergent ways.

Towards the end of the 2nd/8th century and the commencement of the 3rd/9th century, Quranic scholars began to record and document these recitations. By the 4th/10th century, as the number of variations expanded, seven recitations were selected as the canonical references. The chain of transmission (sanad) for these recitations traces back to the Companions of the Prophet (s). Subsequently, three additional recitations were appended to this canon.

Definition of Terms

• The Science of Recitation: The discipline concerning the manner of pronouncing Qur'anic words and recognizing their differences according to various narrators.
• Muqri: A scholar proficient in the articulation of the Qur'an who has received it orally through an unbroken chain of masters in this science. Since certain nuances in the various recitations can only be apprehended through oral transmission (mushafaha), merely studying books on this subject is insufficient to qualify one as a muqri.
• Novice Qari (Qari-yi Mubtadi): A student of recitation who has commenced learning and can distinguish between three separate recitations.
• Advanced Qari (Qari-yi Muntahi): An accomplished scholar of recitation who has mastered the most numerous and renowned variations.

Differences and Their Causes

According to some scholars, the differences in recitations throughout the Qur'an amount to approximately 1,100 instances, ranging from major to minor variations. More than two-thirds of these pertain to assimilation (idgham), clarification (izhhar), or grammatical variations, such as whether a present tense verb is read in the third person or second person (the variation between the prefixes "ya" and "ta"). In his Tafsir Majma' al-bayan, Tabrisi addresses the differences in recitation for each verse (where applicable), providing linguistic and grammatical justifications prior to commencing his exegesis.

Causes of the Differences in Recitations

The development of dialects and accents is a natural and inevitable phenomenon in any language, and variations in the reading of texts—particularly ancient ones—are unavoidable. Despite the utmost caution and precision exercised in the preservation of the Holy Qur'an, differences in recitation occurred. During the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (s), divergent pronunciations were occasionally presented to him; he would approve one or, at times, both. The Hadith of Sab'at Ahruf (stating that the Qur'an was revealed in seven modes) alludes to this concept. To alleviate hardship (usr wa haraj) and facilitate the dissemination of the Qur'an so that no tribe felt estranged from it, the Prophet (s) exercised leniency in this regard, not considering pronunciation differences to be critical or dangerous so long as they did not distort the meaning.

The primary causes for these differences include:

1. Dialectal variations; for instance, the Banu Tamim would pronounce "hatta hin" as "atti 'ayn".
2. The absence of diacritical marks (i'rab) in the Arabic script and the master codices (Masahif al-Imam) until Abu l-Aswad al-Du'ali initiated reforms under the guidance of Imam Ali (a); the completion of this process took two to three centuries.
3. The absence of dotting (i'jam) on letters. Efforts to rectify this deficiency began at the end of the first century during the era of al-Hajjaj b. Yusuf al-Thaqafi, but were not completed until the end of the third century.
4. The individual ijtihad (independent reasoning) of the Companions, reciters, and Quranic scholars, each of whom derived specific grammatical, semantic, and exegetical understandings of verses and words.
5. Temporal and spatial distance from the era of revelation and the cradle of Islam, namely Mecca and Medina.
6. The absence of punctuation marks (sajawandi) and indicators for pauses (waqf) and starts (ibtida'), or any formal divisions and connections, which later became the province of the sciences of recitation and Tajwid. From the late 2nd/8th century and early 3rd/9th century, a movement to document these recitations emerged, with many scholars striving to select and record the most accurate versions.

Chain of Transmission and Opinions of Jurists

The Ten Reciters are those whose chain of transmission (sanad) reaches the Successors (Tabi'un) through the Successors of the Successors, and thence to the Companions—whether scribes of the revelation, memorizers of the Qur'an, or others—and finally to the Messenger of God (s). The chains of transmission for other reciters are less distinct or have not been recorded in the authoritative texts of this discipline. In Majma' al-bayan, Tabrisi lists the chains of transmission for the reciters and narrators he cites, categorized by their cities of residence.

[cite_start]There is scholarly disagreement regarding whether the seven or ten recitations are mutawatir (consecutively narrated)[cite: 1].

[cite_start]'Allama al-Hilli regards the seven recitations as mutawatir and deems it permissible to recite any of them during prayer[cite: 1]. However, he does not accord the same status to other recitations and disallows their use in prayer. Al-Shahid al-Awwal considers the ten recitations to be mutawatir, thus permitting the use of any of them in prayer. According to al-Shahid al-Thani, the assertion that these recitations are mutawatir does not imply that every single variation is mutawatir; rather, it signifies that the quality of tawatur (consecutive narration) is restricted to what is contained within these recitations, as some transmissions even within the seven are considered shadhdh (irregular), let alone those outside them.

[cite_start]Conversely, according to Sayyid Abu l-Qasim al-Khoei, it is a widely held view among the Shia that these recitations are not mutawatir[cite: 1]. Some are the result of the reciter's ijtihad, while others are transmitted via singular report (khabar al-wahid). He argues there is no necessary correlation between the tawatur of the Qur'an itself and the tawatur of the recitations; the evidence establishing the tawatur and necessity of the Qur'an does not substantiate the tawatur of the recitations, just as arguments negating the tawatur of the recitations do not undermine the integrity of the Qur'an itself.

[cite_start]Among Sunni scholars, Bulqini regards the seven recitations as mutawatir, classifying the remaining three and the recitations of the Companions as singular reports[cite: 1]. He categorizes the recitations of Successors such as al-A'mash, Yahya b. Waththab, and Ibn Jubayr as irregular (shadhdh). Al-Suyuti rejects this classification, favoring the view of Ibn al-Jazari:

"Every recitation that aligns, even partially, with Arabic grammatical rules, corresponds to the Uthmanic codices even if only essentially, and possesses a sound chain of transmission, is a correct recitation and constitutes one of the seven modes (ahruf) in which the Qur'an was revealed. It is obligatory for the people to accept it, whether it originates from the Seven Reciters, the ten, or other accepted figures. Should any of these three conditions be lacking, the recitation is deemed weak, irregular, or void, regardless of whether it is attributed to the Seven Reciters or those superior to them. This is the correct position held by the leading investigative scholars among the predecessors and successors, as articulated by al-Dani, Makki, al-Mahdawi, and Abu Shama. It is the school of the predecessors, and no dissenting opinion is known among them."

See Also

• Tajwid