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'Uthmaniyya

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'Uthmaniyya
HeadTalha, Zubayr, 'Ayisha, Mu'awiya
Rule
From35/655-656
Until4th/10th century
RulersUmayyad
Well-known Figures
LiteratesThe book of Al-'Uthmaniyya


The ʾUthmānīyya (Arabic: العُثْمانِيَّة) were a sect primarily characterized by their hostility and opposition to Imam 'Ali (a) and the Prophet's household in political, military, and intellectual matters. The origins of this group have been traced to events such as the refusal to pledge allegiance to Imam 'Ali (a) following the assassination of 'Uthman and the acceptance of Mu'awiya's caliphate. It has been said that the term 'Uthmaniyya emerged in opposition to the term Shi'a during the Battle of Jamal.

According to a group of scholars, the 'Uthmaniyya were responsible for imposing the Battles of Jamal and Siffin on Imam 'Ali (a) and his followers. In later periods, they not only engaged in direct warfare against the Shia, but also took part in cursing and reviling the Prophet's household, as well as killing, imprisoning, and exiling Shi'as.

The 'Uthmaniyya exerted influence across various scholarly fields in the Islamic world, including hadith, jurisprudence, theology, and history. Their dominant approach in these disciplines involved offering a reinterpretation of Islam grounded in the doctrinal and political outlook of the caliphates of the first three caliphs and Mu'awiya. The period of 'Uthmani scholarly dominance was marked by the presence of scholars who harbored hostility toward Imam 'Ali (a) and the Prophet's household.

The last known reports about the 'Uthmaniyya date to the tenth century.

The 'Uthmaniyya, A Sect in Opposition to Imam 'Ali (a)

According to Tarikh al-Tabari, the 'Uthmani sect emerged after the killing of 'Uthman, when a group either refused to pledge allegiance to Imam 'Ali (a) or broke their previous oath of allegiance.[1] The book, Masa'il al-Imama, notes that during the conflicts between Imam 'Ali (a) and Mu'awiya, the 'Uthmaniyya sided with Mu'awiya.[2]

Figures from among the Prophet's (s) Companions—such as Talha, Zubayr, A'isha, and Mu'awiya—have been identified as belonging to the 'Uthmani sect.[3] Wilferd Madelung, the Islamic studies scholar and author of The Succession to Muhammad (s), described the defining feature of the dominant 'Uthmani current as its opposition to the first Imam of the Shi'a.[4] According to an article published in "Pazhuhishnama-yi Tarikh-i Tashayyu'" (Shiite History Research Journal), the 'Uthmaniyya regarded Imam 'Ali's (a) caliphate as illegitimate[5] and considered Mu'awiya to be the rightful caliph after 'Uthman, citing his kinship with 'Uthman and his priority as the rightful avenger of his blood.[6]

It has been said that the 'Uthmaniyya were politically, militarily, and intellectually hostile toward Imam 'Ali (a) and the Prophet's household.[7] According to the Shiite historian Rasul Ja'farian, the 'Uthmaniyya imposed the Battles of Jamal and Siffin on Imam 'Ali (a) and his followers.[8] Although they were defeated at Jamal, they maintained their influence by spreading 'Uthmani ideology in Basra. After the Battle of Siffin, they gained control over Iraq and consolidated their discourse within the Umayyad caliphate.[9]

According to Muhammad Muhsin Murawiji Tabasi, with the political consolidation of the 'Uthmaniyya during the Umayyad period, they not only fought against the Shi'a but also engaged in cursing and reviling the Prophet’s household, as well as killing, imprisoning, and exiling Shi'as as well as Sunni narrators of the virtues of the Prophet's household.[10]

According to Patricia Crone, the Danish orientalist and historiographer, the last historical information related to the 'Uthmaniyya in historical sources[11] consists of a few reports on their inclinations in the tenth century.[12]

Terminology

In his book Tarikh-i Tashayyu' dar Iran (The History of Shiism in Iran), Rasul Ja'farian attributes the emergence of the term 'Uthmani as a counterpoint to the term Shi'i to the Battle of Jamal.[13] In the battle's taunts, some of the forces of Jamal referred to the companions of Imam 'Ali (a) as followers of the "Religion of 'Ali".[14] According to Ja'farian, the term "Religion of 'Uthman" was coined in contrast to the "Religion of 'Ali" during the same period.[15]

Similarly, during the Battle of Siffin, some poets in the Levantine army referred to the Levantines as followers of the "Religion of 'Uthman".[16] In contrast, Rifa'a b. Shaddad, a companion of Imam 'Ali (a), in his verses identified himself as a follower of the "Religion of 'Ali".[17]

The term "Religion of 'Uthman" was also reportedly used by the Kufan army during the events of Karbala.[18] In later periods, this orientation came to be known as 'Uthmaniyya,[19] and according to historical evidence, this designation was already in use before 145 AH/762-3.[20] Al-Mas'udi also refers to the 'Uthmaniyya as Shi'at al-'Uthmaniyya in his book al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf.[21]

Historical Development

Patricia Crone, in her article on the 'Uthmaniyya, divides its historical trajectory into four phases: (1) loyalty to 'Uthman, (2) the doctrine of the three caliphs, (3) consensus on the four caliphs, and (4) support for the Umayyads.[22]

Belief in the Legitimacy of 'Uthman's Caliphate and the His Unjust Murder

The first phase of the 'Uthmaniyya is characterized by the belief in the legitimacy of 'Uthman's caliphate and the injustice of his killing,[23] the rejection of the legitimacy of Imam 'Ali's (a) caliphate due to his (alleged) involvement in 'Uthman's murder, and the claim that he assumed the caliphate without consulting the umma (Islamic community).[24]

According to Patricia Crone, most of those who did not participate in the uprising against 'Uthman were likely adherents of the 'Uthmani view,[25] and up until 70 AH/689-90, the 'Uthmaniyya perspective appears to have been the dominant view in the Muslim world.[26] According to Ja'farian, the general public during this period adhered to the 'Uthmani doctrine.[27]

During this period, a number of political actions have been attributed to the 'Uthmaniyya, including instigating and imposing the Battles of Jamal and Siffin,[28] the usurpation of the caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad government,[29] the cursing of Imam 'Ali (a),[30] the martyrdom of Imam al-Hasan (a),[31] the Event of Karbala,[32] and the persecution of the Shi'a.[33]

Among the prominent figures associated with the 'Uthmaniyya during this period—besides Talha, Zubayr, Mu'awiya, and 'A'isha—were 'Abd Allah b. Salam and Mughira b. Shu'ba, who refused to pledge allegiance to Imam 'Ali (a) and went to the Levant to join Mu'awiya.[34] Among the Ansar, those mentioned as not having [[ Bay'a|pledged allegiance]] to Imam 'Ali (a)—contrary to the majority of the Ansar—include Hassan b. Thabit, Ka'b b. Malik, Abu Sa'id al-Khudri, Muhammad b. Maslama, Nu'man b. Bashir, and Zayd b. Thabit.[35]

Belief in the Three Caliphs

In the second phase, which coincides with the Marwanid period (64-132 AH/683-750), the People of Hadith (ashab al-hadith) restricted the title of Rightly Guided Caliphs (al-khulafa' al-rashidun) to the first three caliphs.[36] According to Patricia Crone, the 'Uthmaniyya during this period preferred to remain silent regarding the caliph after 'Uthman and referred to 'Ali's (a) caliphate as a time of fitna (sedition).[37] They regarded figures such as 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar and Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas—who, in their view, had refrained from involvement in the fitna—as their fellow adherents of the 'Uthmani doctrine.[38]

Belief in the Fourth Caliph

In the third phase, the term 'Uthmani referred to someone who believed in the superiority of 'Uthman over Imam 'Ali (a) and held that each caliph was the most virtuous of his time, equating the order of succession with the hierarchy of merit.[39] During this period, the 'Uthmaniyya stood in contrast to political Shi'as[40] or Sunnis with Shiite leanings—both of whom considered 'Ali (a) superior to 'Uthman.[41] According to Crone, the groundwork for this view was laid by the consolidation of the doctrine of tarbi', or the four-caliph theory, in the mid-ninth century, influenced by the inclinations of Ahmad b. Hanbal.[42]

Support for the Umayyads

According to Patricia Crone's article, the disappearance of 'Uthmani-leaning People of Hadith by the late ninth century led to the term 'Uthmaniyya being applied to a group that affirmed the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphate and its continuation among the Umayyads of al-Andalus (Andalusia).[43] Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani mentions the presence of the 'Uthmaniyya in the tenth century, noting that they had their own mosque in Kufa, which the Shi'a avoided for prayer.[44]

The 'Uthmani Contributions to Islamic Fields of Knowledge

It has been said that from its very inception, the 'Uthmaniyya had a significant influence across various fields of knowledge in the Islamic world, including hadith, jurisprudence, theology, and historiography.[45] According to Rasul Ja'farian, the dominant outlook of the 'Uthmaniyya in these areas involved offering a reinterpretation of Islam grounded in the doctrinal and political perspectives of the first three caliphs and of Mu'awiya.[46] The prominence of hadith transmitters, jurists, theologians, and historians who harbored hostility toward Imam 'Ali (a) and the Ahl al-Bayt (a) has been identified as one of the defining features of the period of 'Uthmani dominance in scholarly circles.[47]

Hadith and Jurisprudence

According to Mahdi Farmanian, a scholar of sectarian history, historical reports indicate that 'Uthmani scholars were active in the fields of hadith and jurisprudence in the most prominent centers of learning in the early centuries of Islam.[48] These centers, in order of importance, were: Medina, Basra, Kufa, Mecca, and the Levant.[49] Accordingly, the most trusted Companions among the Sunnis in Medina were considered to be affiliated with the 'Uthmaniyya[50]—among them, 'A'isha,[51] 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar,[52] and Abu Hurayra.[53]

According to Farmanian, the dominant approach among the 'Uthmani jurists and hadith transmitters of Medina was the transmission of the virtues of the first three caliphs and hostility toward Imam 'Ali (a).[54] Moreover, some of the Seven Jurists[55] of Medina[56] were, to varying degrees, inclined toward the 'Uthmani perspective.[57]

According to Ibn 'Abd Rabbih in al-'Iqd al-Farid, the people of Basra were predominantly adherents of the 'Uthmani doctrine.[58] Anas b. Malik[59] and Muhammad b. Sirin (d. 110 AH/728-9)[60] were identified by Ibn Abi al-Hadid and Ibn al-Jawzi, respectively, as among the most prominent 'Uthmani jurists and hadith transmitters of Basra.[61] According to Farmanian, the prevailing attitude among 'Uthmani scholars in Basra was marked by silence regarding Imam 'Ali (a) and a lack of belief in his elevated status.[62]

In Kufa—despite the predominance of Shias and Shiite-leaning Sunnis—there are reports of the presence of 'Uthmani jurists and hadith transmitters, such as Shaqiq b. Salama (d. 82 AH/701-2).[63] Some jurists and hadith scholars of Mecca, including Maymun b. Mihran (d. 116 AH/734-5),[64] have also been identified as adherents of the 'Uthmani view.[65] It has been reported that many jurists in the Levant, under Umayyad rule, were inclined toward the 'Uthmaniyya, and numerous hadiths extolling the virtues of the Umayyads were transmitted by them.[66]

Historiography

In the field of historiography, reference has been made to the existence of an "'Uthmani school of historiography".[67] It has been said that 'Uthmani-oriented historians, supported by the Umayyads, sought to legitimize the Umayyad rule by distorting historical narratives.[68] As a result, the accounts transmitted by 'Uthmani historians came to wield significant influence in the writing of early Islamic history.[69]

The defining features of the 'Uthmani school of historiography include hostility toward Imam 'Ali (a)—manifested in the avoidance of transmitting his virtues and the fabrication of hadiths disparaging him—the glorification of 'Uthman and certain other Companions, and opposition to the Ansar, including the suppression of their merits in historical accounts.[70] Among the historians associated with this school are Aban b. 'Uthman and Sayf b. 'Umar al-Tamimi.[71] According to Ja'farian, the influence of the 'Uthmani historiographical school declined in the ninth century with the rise of Shiite historians.[72]

Theology (Kalam)

One of the major arenas of theological dispute between the 'Uthmaniyya and their opponents is considered to be the book Maqalat al-'Uthmaniyya by al-Jahiz (160–255 AH/777-869).[73] According to Hassan Ansari, a researcher of Islamic history, al-Jahiz in this work presents the theology of the 'Uthmaniyya in contrast to that of the Shia,[74] and he reports in detail the arguments of the 'Uthmaniyya against the those offered by the Imamiyya concerning the imamate, the necessity of a textual designation for the imam, the superiority of Imam 'Ali (a), and his being in the right in the battles of Jamal, Siffin, and Nahrawan.[75]

Al-Mas'udi mentions a book by the 'Uthmaniyya titled al-Barahin fi al-imama al-Umawiyyin, in which the imamate of the Umayyads is defended.[76] According to al-Mas'udi, this book considers the caliphate of the Andalusian Umayyads as a continuation of the caliphate of 'Uthman and the Umayyad caliphate.[77]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 4, p. 429-430; Nāshī Akbar, Masāʾil al-imāma, p. 15-16.
  2. ↑ Nāshī Akbar, Masāʾil al-imāma, p. 16.
  3. ↑ Nāshī Akbar, Masāʾil al-imāma, p. 16.
  4. ↑ Madelung, Firaqahā-yi Islāmī, p. 37.
  5. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 51.
  6. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  7. ↑ Murawijī Ṭabasī, Taʾthīr-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya bar Ibn Taymīyya, p. 134.
  8. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  9. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  10. ↑ Murawijī Ṭabasī, Taʾthīr-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya bar Ibn Taymīyya, p. 134-135.
  11. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 231.
  12. ↑ Iṣfahānī, al-ʾAghānī, vol. 11, p. 167.
  13. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  14. ↑ Mufīd, al-Jumal, p. 346.
  15. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  16. ↑ Minqarī, Waqʿat Ṣiffīn, p. 556; Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 5, p. 43.
  17. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 6, p. 50.
  18. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 5, p. 435.
  19. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 53.
  20. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 4, p. 429-430.
  21. ↑ Masʿūdī, al-Tanbīh wa l-ishrāf, p. 337.
  22. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 227.
  23. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 4, p. 449.
  24. ↑ Ibn Qutayba al-Dīnawarī, al-Ikhtilāf fī l-lafẓ, p. 54; Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 227.
  25. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 227.
  26. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 227.
  27. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 215.
  28. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 40.
  29. ↑ Murawijī Ṭabasī, Taʾthīr-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya bar Ibn Taymīyya, p. 134-135.
  30. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī, ʿUthmānīyya wa shīʿa dar du qarn-i nukhust-i hijrī, p. 108.
  31. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī, ʿUthmānīyya wa shīʿa dar du qarn-i nukhust-i hijrī, p. 109.
  32. ↑ Hidāyat Panāh, Bāztāb-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya dar wāqiʿa-yi Karbalā, p. 149; Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 216; The formation of the Shi'a and 'Uthmani sects and their continuation with the rise of the Abbasid state. (Persian).
  33. ↑ Murawijī Ṭabasī, Taʾthīr-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya bar Ibn Taymīyya, p. 134-135.
  34. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 4, p. 430.
  35. ↑ Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī, vol. 4, p. 429-430.
  36. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 228-229.
  37. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 228-229.
  38. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 230.
  39. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 231.
  40. ↑ The political or Iraqi Shia have been described as a group of Shia in the first two centuries AH who believed in the precedence of Imam 'Ali over 'Uthman solely from a political perspective, not in doctrinal terms.(Jaʿfarīyān, Tārīkh-i tashayyuʿ dar Irān, p. 22-27.)
  41. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 231.
  42. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 231.
  43. ↑ Crone, ʿUthmānīyya, p. 231.
  44. ↑ Iṣfahānī, al-ʾAghānī, vol. 11, p. 167.
  45. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 52; Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth-i, p. 144; Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 215.
  46. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 216.
  47. ↑ Murawijī Ṭabasī, Taʾthīr-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya bar Ibn Taymīyya, p. 135.
  48. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 144.
  49. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 144.
  50. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 144-145.
  51. ↑ Ibn Qutayba al-Dīnawarī, al-Imāma wa l-sīyāsa, vol. 1, p. 71-72.
  52. ↑ Thaqafī al-Kūfī, al-Ghārāt, vol. 2, p. 569.
  53. ↑ Thaqafī al-Kūfī, al-Ghārāt, vol. 2, p. 569.
  54. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 149-150.
  55. ↑ The Seven Jurists of Medina who were contemporaries and belonged to the generation of the Tabi'un (Companions of the Companions) are: Abu Bakr b. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Makhzumi (d. 94 AH/712-3), Kharija b. Zayd al-Ansari (d. 99 AH/717-8), Sa'id b. al-Musayyab (d. 91 AH/709-10), Sulayman b. Yasar (d. 107 AH/725-6), 'Ubayd Allah b. 'Abd Allah al-Makhzumi (d. 98 AH/716-7), 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (d. 94 AH/712-3), and Qasim b. Muhammad b. Abi Bakr (d. 108 AH/726-7).
  56. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 5, p. 136.
  57. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 145-146.
  58. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, al-ʿIqd al-farīd, vol. 6, p. 264.
  59. ↑ Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, vol. 4, p. 74.
  60. ↑ Ibn Jawzī, al-Radd ʿalā al-mutaʿaṣṣib al-ʿAnīd, p. 75.
  61. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 150.
  62. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 156.
  63. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 157-159; Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh-i Baghdād, vol. 9, p. 271; Hidāyat Panāh, Bāztāb-i tafakkur-i ʿUthmānīyya dar wāqiʿa-yi Karbalā, p. 225-226.
  64. ↑ Dhahabī, Sīyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ, vol. 6, p. 76-77.
  65. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 168-170.
  66. ↑ Farmānīyān, ʿUthmānīyya wa aṣḥāb-i ḥadīth, p. 172-177; Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 217-220.
  67. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 53.
  68. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 52-53.
  69. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 53.
  70. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 53.
  71. ↑ Khayrkhāh ʿAlawī & Others, ʿAlī wa khilāfat-i wiy, p. 53.
  72. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Darshā-yi darbāra-yi firaq-i Islāmī, p. 217.
  73. ↑ About al-Jahiz's book Al-'Uthmaniyya and its refutations. (Persian).
  74. ↑ Al-'Uthmaniyya by al-Jahiz and the Authenticity of Shi'a Thought Regarding Imamate (Persian).
  75. ↑ Al-'Uthmaniyya by al-Jahiz and the Authenticity of Shi'a Thought Regarding Imamate (Persian).
  76. ↑ Masʿūdī, al-Tanbīh wa l-ishrāf, p. 336.
  77. ↑ Masʿūdī, al-Tanbīh wa l-ishrāf p. 336-337.

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  • کتاب العثمانيه جاحظ و اصالت تفکر شيعی درباره امامت (Al-'Uthmaniyya by al-Jahiz and the Authenticity of Shi'a Thought Regarding Imamate (Persian)). Accessed: 2025/04/26.
  • درباره کتاب العثمانيه جاحظ و رديه های آن (About al-Jahiz's book Al-'Uthmaniyya and its refutations. (Persian)). Accessed: 2025/04/26.
  • شکل گیری مذهب شیعی و عثمانی و ادامه آن با روی کار آمدن دولت عباسی (The formation of the Shi'a and 'Uthmani sects and their continuation with the rise of the Abbasid state. (Persian)). Accessed: 2025/04/26.
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