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Reza Pahlavi
Founder of the Pahlavi Dynasty in Iran
Well-known AsReza Khan, Reza Shah
Religious AffiliationIslam
Birth1878
Death1944
Burial PlaceShahr-i Rey
Notable rolesKing


Reza Pahlavi (1878–1944), known as Reza Khan and later Reza Shah, was the founder of the Pahlavi Dynasty in Iran. Prior to his ascension to the throne, Reza Pahlavi served as the Minister of War for four years and as Prime Minister for two years, simultaneously retaining his military portfolio under Ahmad Shah Qajar. His reign is regarded as a pivotal era characterized by extensive modernization, the adoption of transformative political, economic, cultural, and social policies, and the implementation of a secularist agenda. By granting the military extensive authority in national and economic affairs, Reza Shah consolidated the foundations of his power, effectively establishing an absolute military state.

Reza Shah's policies, particularly in the sphere of cultural and religious affairs—such as the proscription of specific Shi'a rituals, the establishment of state-controlled religious institutions, the enforcement of compulsory military service, the Uniform Dress Law, the unveiling of women (Kashf-i Hijab), and judicial reforms—elicited significant backlash from the public, particularly the religious class and the clergy, occasionally resulting in violence. According to historical researchers, Reza Shah promoted Irancentrism (Iran-gara'i) as a counter-narrative to check the influence of both religious forces and intellectuals.

Scholars note a distinct dichotomy in Reza Khan's religious conduct and his relationship with the Shi'a clergy between his tenure as Prime Minister and his reign as monarch. To pave his path to the throne, he initially feigned piety and upheld religious observances, even leading public religious rituals. However, upon assuming the monarchy, his approach gradually shifted toward the violent suppression of religious rites and the confrontation of the clergy.

Introduction and Status

Reza Pahlavi, known as Reza Khan and Reza Shah, founded the Pahlavi Dynasty, the final monarchical dynasty of Iran.[1] The era of the first Pahlavi is characterized as a period of political, economic, cultural, and social modernization, driven by modernists and Western-educated figures such as Teymourtash, 'Ali Akbar Davar, and Nusrat al-Dawla Firuz.[2] This period is significant for its adoption of extreme Irancentrism, the transformation of the judicial system, the alteration of religious attire, restrictions on traditional customs and religious rituals, and the enforcement of secular policies such as Kashf-i Hijab.[3]

Reza Shah's reign has also been described as a regime of autocracy or absolute sovereignty,[4] which resulted in the dismissal or physical elimination of many of his associates, such as Teymourtash and Davar, as well as opponents like Sayyid Hasan Mudarris.[5] Certain policies implemented by Reza Shah incited opposition movements and uprisings, which were typically suppressed with severity by his government.[6] Furthermore, the cumulative effect of Reza Shah's actions was the imposition of restrictions on the clergy, significantly reducing their sphere of influence and power.[7]

Biography

Reza Pahlavi was born in 1878, during the reign of Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar, to a military family in the village of Alasht, Savadkuh, Mazandaran. Following his father's death, he relocated to Tehran and enlisted in the Cossack Brigade as a youth.[8] According to Muhammad Taqi Bahar, after successfully completing missions and receiving promotions, Reza Khan—then commander of the Hamadan infantry battalion—purged the Cossack division of Russian sympathizers, marking his first collaboration with the British.[9] Following his participation in the coup of February 22, 1921 alongside Sayyid Diya' al-Din Tabataba'i, Reza Khan attained the post of Minister of War and received the title "Sardar Sepah" from Ahmad Shah Qajar.[10] After reorganizing Iran's military forces,[11] his primary objective was the suppression of rebellions and movements that had formed throughout Iran,[12] including the Jungle Movement led by Mirza Kuchak Khan.[13]

Contemporary historians argue that following the coup of February 22, 1921, Reza Khan consolidated his power by entrusting national affairs to the military[14] and intervening in the commercial sector.[15] He also adopted a policy of centralization, suppressing local powers and tribal khans such as Shaykh Khaz'al in Khuzestan.[16] By cultivating relationships with influential figures and political currents, such as the Nationalists,[17] Reza Khan secured the election of his supporters to the 5th National Consultative Assembly, facilitating his appointment as Prime Minister by Ahmad Shah.[18]

Establishment of the Pahlavi Monarchy

Historians note that Reza Khan sought to depose Ahmad Shah Qajar; consequently, from mid-1921, newspapers aligned with him promoted the concept of republicanism. However, he abandoned this initiative due to opposition from various public factions, particularly the migrant scholars of the Atabat.[19] Following the withdrawal of the republican plan, and amidst Ahmad Shah's prolonged absence in Europe, the press once again fueled anti-Qajar sentiment, sparking protests across Iran. In response, the National Consultative Assembly passed a bill deposing the Qajars and established a provisional government headed by Reza Khan.[20] With the convening of the Constituent Assembly in December 1925 and the amendment of several articles of the Supplement to the Constitution of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, the monarchy was officially transferred to Reza Khan and his lineage. Reza Shah was crowned on April 24, 1926.[21]

Reza Shah formed numerous cabinets during his sixteen-year reign; however, driven by suspicion, he purged many influential figures from the political sphere.[22] Due to his alignment with Germany during World War II and the subsequent occupation of Iran by the Allies (USSR, USA, UK), he was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.[23]

Death and Funeral

Following his abdication, Reza Shah was exiled to Mauritius and subsequently to South Africa. He resided on the island of Mauritius for approximately five months before being transferred to Johannesburg. Reza Shah died in Johannesburg on July 26, 1944, following a second heart attack.[24] His body was temporarily buried in the Al-Rifa'i Mosque in Egypt before being transferred to Iran.[25]

Memoirs indicate that Mohammad Reza Pahlavi intended to rehabilitate his father's public image by parading the body in Qom upon its return to Iran. The plan involved a Funeral Prayer performed by a Marja', followed by burial in the Holy Shrine of Lady Ma'suma (a). However, Mohammad Reza abandoned this plan due to the hostile atmosphere created by groups such as the Fada'iyan-e Islam,[26] as well as opposition from prominent scholars—including Ayatollah Burujirdi, Sayyid Muhammad Hujjat Kuhkamari, and Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Khwansari—who refused to perform prayers over the body, and the general absence of students and the public in Qom.[27] On May 7, 1950, Reza Shah's remains were transferred to Shahr-i Rey and interred in a mausoleum constructed for him within the Holy Shrine of 'Abd al-'Azim al-Hasani.[28] This mausoleum was destroyed after the revolution in May 1980 by order of Sadeq Khalkhali, the Shari'a judge of the Islamic Revolutionary Courts.[29]

Actions

Reza Shah's political, social, and cultural initiatives during his sixteen-year reign elicited a spectrum of reactions from the populace and the clergy, often escalating into violence.[30] Historical researchers argue that, from a governmental perspective, his actions established an absolute military sovereignty centered on the army.[31] Socio-politically, the establishment of new institutions and administrative systems marked a transition from a feudal (*muluk al-tawa'ifi*) system to a centralized state.[32] Culturally and religiously, this era represented a collision between traditional religious values and those imported from the West.[33] Economically, the period is viewed as an era of modernization and industrialization based on Western technology.[34]

Controversial measures taken by Reza Shah included the prohibition of specific Islamic and Shi'a rituals such as Ta'ziya and Rawda-khwani, the enforcement of the Uniform Dress Law, the unveiling of women, the implementation of compulsory military service (conscription), the promotion of Irancentrism, the curtailment of free speech,[35] and the creation of state-controlled religious institutions.[36] According to some historians, these cultural, political, and social actions were primarily aimed at curbing the influence of the clergy and weakening their social standing.[37]

Prohibition of Mourning and Shi'a Rituals

Historical documents indicate that prior to his accession, Reza Khan maintained his own mourning troupe and actively participated in Muharram mourning ceremonies. He regularly attended 'Ashura and Tasu'a commemorations in Tehran's *Takayehs*, particularly Tekyeh-e Dowlat, accompanied by a large contingent of his troops.[38] He also organized magnificent mourning ceremonies at the Cossack House, which were attended even by Ahmad Shah.[39] However, after ascending the throne, his approach shifted; he gradually imposed strict regulations on mourning ceremonies, starting with the transfer of the Cossack House ceremony to Tekyeh-e Dowlat.[40]

According to Hossein Makki in Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, these restrictions eventually evolved into a total ban on all ceremonies. By 1936 and 1937, the government went so far as to order guild leaders to organize festive carnivals during the mourning period of Muharram, including the Night of 'Ashura.[41] Scholars attribute Reza Shah's suppression of Shi'a rituals to his realization that the clergy's power stemmed largely from their control over traditional observances; thus, he viewed the restriction and elimination of these rituals, particularly mourning ceremonies, as essential for controlling the clergy.[42]

In response to the government's restrictions, many citizens held ceremonies in secret.[43] However, some scholars in various cities insisted on public gatherings, a stance that ultimately led to physical confrontations.[44]

Religious Institution-building

The establishment of institutions such as the Faculty of Theology (Ma'qul wa Manqul), the Institute of Preaching and Oration, and the Organization for the Fostering of Thoughts is regarded as a strategic move to control and limit the clerical establishment.[45] Some observers argue that prior to the modernization of education, Reza Shah's primary objective was to monopolize political power and diminish clerical influence in political affairs. The Faculty of Theology, one of the six original faculties of the University of Tehran, was established in the Sepahsalar School. The trusteeship of this school had been held by Sayyid Hasan Mudarris, but following his exile, control was transferred to the Ministry of Education.[46] The faculty's founding resolution stipulated that the Ministry of Education would grant theology degrees.[47] With the creation of the Institute of Preaching and Oration under the Faculty of Theology, preachers were required to obtain a permit from the institute to engage in proselytizing; failure to do so resulted in a prohibition on wearing Clerical Dress.[48]

The Iranian Uniform Dress Law and the Incident of Kashf-i Hijab

Main articles: Uniform Dress Law, Kashf-i Hijab, and Goharshad Mosque Uprising

With the approval of the "Law of Uniformity of Dress for Iranian Subjects within the Country" on December 27, 1935, by the National Consultative Assembly,[49] many clerics and citizens were prohibited from wearing traditional attire.[50] When the wearing of the chapeau hat was mandated in 1935, scholars in Mashhad sent Sayyid Husayn Tabataba'i Qumi to Tehran to negotiate a protest against the law, but the government detained him.[51] In response, the public gathered at the Goharshad Mosque; the demonstration ended in violence when military forces intervened, resulting in significant casualties.[52] Following this event, in the month of Dey of the same year, the Kashf-i Hijab law was passed, provoking severe backlash from religious citizens and clerics, including 'Abd al-Karim Ha'iri Yazdi, who was subjected to harsh treatment by the government and Reza Shah personally.[53]

The Law of Compulsory Military Service

The Law of Compulsory Military Service, passed by the National Consultative Assembly in 1925 with the support of jurists such as the Imam Jumu'a of Khu'i and Sayyid Hasan Mudarris,[54] successfully integrated individuals from across society into the framework of the army, transcending ethnic, racial, and guild divisions.[55] This measure elicited mixed reactions from the public and the scholars.[56] While general conscription in Iran dates back to the initiatives of Abbas Mirza and Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir,[57] it was only under Reza Shah's pressure that it was implemented as official law.[58] The law stipulated that all male Iranian subjects, upon reaching the age of 21, were required to perform military service, unless legally exempted.[59] Despite its passage, implementation issues delayed the full execution of the law until 1931.

Historical sources report that the Law of Compulsory Military Service provoked strong opposition due to its conflict with traditional social structures and the threat felt by the clergy.[60] Tribal leaders and clerics, such as Aqa Nur Allah Najafi Isfahani, protested the law. Aqa Nur Allah migrated to Qom in protest, where he was joined by over 600 scholars from other regions;[61] however, the movement dissipated following his death.[62]

Transformation of the Judicial System

The restructuring of the judiciary and the absorption of clerics into the state's administrative and financial systems are considered pivotal actions taken by the first Pahlavi government to control the clergy.[63] Historical researchers note that 'Ali Akbar Davar required the participation of prominent clerics to lend legitimacy to the new justice system; consequently, he persistently recruited many into the judicial apparatus.[64] This integration of clerics into the judiciary and notary offices gave rise to the term "state cleric" (rūḥānī-yi dawlatī).[65] According to Sayyid Muhsin Sadr al-Ashraf (d. 1341 Sh), one of the clerics absorbed into the system, Reza Shah eventually expressed opposition to their presence, initiating a process of replacing them with European-educated personnel.[66]

Promotion of Irancentrism

Irancentrism, or the archaist movement during Reza Shah's era, is described as an ideology intended to supplant both intellectualism and religion in Iranian society.[67] In Resistance and Reform in Iran, John Foran notes that the Irancentrism approach aggressively promoted pre-Islamic ideals to frame Islam as an alien religion imposed on Iran by an uncivilized people.[68] Furthermore, Jalal Al-e Ahmad argued that the archaist current served as a substitute to fill the void left by the silence and weakness of the intellectual class during Reza Shah's reign.[69]

Relation with the Shi'a Clerical Organization

Reza Khan's religious conduct and his relationship with the Shi'a clergy shifted dramatically between his time as Prime Minister and his reign as monarch.

  • Prime Ministerial Period

Historians such as Muhammad Taqi Bahar and Jalal al-Din Madani argue that Reza Khan's success in attaining power was partly due to his feigned piety and observance of religious rites, designed to curry favor with the public and the clergy.[70] Imam Khomeini also noted this behavior, stating that Reza Khan displayed great religiosity and visited all the Takayehs of Tehran during Muharram; however, once in power, he initiated activities completely antagonistic toward religion and the clergy.[71]

Hossein Makki believes Reza Khan viewed respect for scholars as a necessary tactic to achieve his goals. For instance, after resolving the Shaykh Khaz'al crisis, he visited the Holy Shrines and met with the grand Ayatollahs in Najaf, presenting himself as obedient to their will.[72] Makki also notes that during the republicanism movement, following protests in Tehran, Reza Khan traveled to Qom; after the grand Ayatollahs opposed the republican plan, he formally withdrew it via proclamation.[73] Yahya Dawlatabadi noted in Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā that Reza Khan compromised with clerics to such an extent that his modernist allies protested. Reza Khan reportedly replied: "Expediency required it, and this is a temporary behavior."[74]

  • Monarchy Period

Researchers indicate that Reza Shah initially maintained positive relations with certain scholars, such as Shaykh 'Abd al-Karim Ha'iri, Nur Allah Najafi Isfahani, and the Imam Jumu'a of Khu'i, following his coronation.[75] However, after consolidating power and visiting Turkey—where he was influenced by Atatürk—he adopted a policy of separating religion from politics.[76] Through measures such as the uniform dress law, restrictions on clerical dress, bans on preaching and Rawda-khwani, and particularly the Kashf-i Hijab incident, he effectively positioned himself against the clergy and the religious class, leading to violent confrontations.[77]

Notable instances of Reza Shah's aggression toward the clergy include:

  • The incident involving women appearing without hijab in the Holy Shrine of Lady Ma'suma (a), which drew a protest from Muhammad Taqi Bafqi; Reza Shah responded by beating and exiling Bafqi.[78]
  • His confrontation with Shaykh 'Abd al-Karim Ha'iri at the latter's home, where he threatened to destroy the Seminary after the Sheikh protested the Kashf-i Hijab law.[79]
  • The widespread arrest of students and clerics following the Goharshad Mosque Uprising.[80]

Impact of Reza Shah's Fall on Religious Currents

On August 25, 1941, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union invaded Iran. By the morning of August 28, under orders not to resist, Iran was occupied, and Reza Shah was deposed.[81] The traditional classes, particularly the clergy—who possessed the authority to issue a fatwa of jihad against the occupiers—remained conspicuously silent regarding the Shah's overthrow. This silence is viewed as a rebuke of Reza Shah's repressive policies.[82] The religious community largely welcomed his departure. Rasul Jafarian, in Religious-Political Currents and Organizations in Iran, describes the relief of the religious classes with the metaphor of "a pigeon released from a cage."[83]

During Reza Shah's era, opposition by the devout primarily took the form of non-participation in state policies, such as the new educational system. However, realizing that continued isolation would marginalize them in a modernizing society, the devout seized the opportunity presented by Reza Shah's fall to engage with issues like modern education.[84] The Jami'at-e Ta'limat-e Islami (Islamic Education Society), backed by popular support, established numerous non-profit schools that integrated religious instruction with the modern curriculum.[85]

Following the Shah's abdication, numerous religious journals, both national and local, began publication.[86] Reza Khan had closed many seminaries, repurposing them as commercial warehouses or handing them over to secular institutions. After 1941, clerics strove to reclaim these schools and restore them to their original function.[87] Examples include:

  • The Nawwab School in Mashhad, which had been used by the Higher Normal School, was reclaimed by students after 1941 upon the recommendation of Mirza Mahdi Isfahani.[88]
  • In Yazd, religious schools had been commandeered by the Ministry of Education or used as municipal stables, warehouses, and dervish lodges. After the fall of the first Pahlavi, schools such as Khan-e Bozorg, Khan-e Kuchak, Musalla, Chahar Minar, and Mulla 'Abd al-Rahim Khani were gradually returned to clerical control.[89]
  • A seminary in Khorramabad, converted into a grain warehouse during Reza Shah's reign, was reclaimed by prominent local clerics.[90]

Notes

  1. ↑ Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, p. 235.
  2. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", p. 843.
  3. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", p. 843.
  4. ↑ Hidāyat, Khāṭirāt wa Khaṭarāt, 1363 Sh, p. 386.
  5. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", p. 843.
  6. ↑ Ṣalāḥ, Kashf-i Ḥijāb, 1384 Sh, vol. 1, p. 103; ʿIffatī, "Āyat Allāh Mu'assis, Ḥā'irī Yazdī, Shaykh ʿAbd al-Karīm", Hawzah Information Base.
  7. ↑ Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 239–240; Bābā'ī, Sāzmān-i Rūḥāniyyat-i Shīʿa dar ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal, 1389 Sh, p. 145.
  8. ↑ Arfaʿ, Dar Khidmat-i Panj Sulṭān, 1377 Sh, p. 105.
  9. ↑ Bahār, Tārīkh-i Mukhtaṣar-i Aḥzāb-i Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1357 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 73–77.
  10. ↑ Bahār, Tārīkh-i Mukhtaṣar-i Aḥzāb-i Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1357 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 80–86.
  11. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 246.
  12. ↑ Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 153–169.
  13. ↑ Fakhrā'ī, Sardār-i Jangal: Mīrzā Kūchak Khān, 1354 Sh, pp. 372–383.
  14. ↑ Banī-Aḥmad, Tārīkh-i Shāhanshāhī-yi Pahlawī, 1356 Sh, vol. 2, pp. 239–240; Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 189–190
  15. ↑ Kūhistānī-nizhād, "Inqilāb-i Mashrūṭa wa Adwār-i Majlis-i Shūrā", p. 444.
  16. ↑ Loraine, Shaykh Khazʿal wa Pādshāhī-yi Riḍā Khān, 1363 Sh, pp. 63–89
  17. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 286.
  18. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 300; Mustawfī, Sharḥ-i Zindagānī-yi Man yā Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 3, pp. 567–583.
  19. ↑ Kūhistānī-nizhād, "Inqilāb-i Mashrūṭa wa Adwār-i Majlis-i Shūrā", p. 444.
  20. ↑ Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 231–233; Dashtī, Panjāh wa Panj, 1354 Sh, p. 132.
  21. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, pp. 375–390; Hidāyat, Khāṭirāt wa Khaṭarāt, 1363 Sh, p. 370.
  22. ↑ Taqī-zāda, Zindagī-yi Ṭūfānī: Khāṭirāt-i Sayyid Ḥasan Taqī-zāda, 1368 Sh, p. 192.
  23. ↑ Banī-Aḥmad, Tārīkh-i Shāhanshāhī-yi Pahlawī, 1356 Sh, vol. 3, pp. 479–536.
  24. ↑ Shams Pahlawī, Khāṭirāt-i Shams Pahlawī, 1372 Sh, pp. 415–422.
  25. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 8, pp. 526-533.
  26. ↑ Center for the Documents of the Islamic Revolution, "Bāykūt-i Tashyīʿ-i Jināzi-yi Riḍā Khān tawassaṭ-i ʿUlamā wa Ṭullāb-i Qum", published on the website of the Center for the Documents of the Islamic Revolution.
  27. ↑ Center for the Documents of the Islamic Revolution, "Naqshi-yi Intiqāl-i Jasad-i Riḍā Khān bi Najaf Chigūni Shikast Khurd?", published on the website of the Center for the Documents of the Islamic Revolution.
  28. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 8, pp. 526-533.
  29. ↑ Khalkhālī, Khāṭirāt-i Āyat Allāh Khalkhālī, 1379 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 342-347.
  30. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", pp. 846–847.
  31. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, vol. 4, pp. 403–405; Abrahamian, Īrān Bayna Du Inqilāb, 1377 Sh, p. 169.
  32. ↑ Abrahamian, Īrān Bayna Du Inqilāb, 1377 Sh, p. 169; Katouzian, Iqtiṣād-i Siyāsī-yi Īrān az Mashrūṭiyyat tā Pāyān-i Silsili-yi Pahlawī, 1372 Sh, p. 170.
  33. ↑ Behnām, Īrāniyān wa Andīsh-yi Tajaddud, 1375 Sh, pp. 58–59; Hidāyat, Khāṭirāt wa Khaṭarāt, 1361 Sh, pp. 524–525.
  34. ↑ Katouzian, Iqtiṣād-i Siyāsī-yi Īrān az Mashrūṭiyyat tā Pāyān-i Silsili-yi Pahlawī, 1372 Sh, pp. 159–160; Abrahamian, Īrān Bayna Du Inqilāb, 1377 Sh, p. 184.
  35. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", pp. 846–847.
  36. ↑ Nīkūbarsharād, "Barrasī-yi Siyāsat-i Dīnī — Farhangī dar ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī (Dawri-yi Ḥukūmat-i Riḍā Shāh)", published on the Political Studies and Research Base.
  37. ↑ Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 239–249; Avery, Tārīkh-i Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, ʿAṭā'ī Institute, pp. 59–60.
  38. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1363 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 450–452.
  39. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 299.
  40. ↑ National Archives and Library Organization, Sand-nāmi 14: Asnādī az Mamnūʿiyyat-i ʿAzādārī-yi Muḥarram dar Dawri-yi Pahlawī, p. 2.
  41. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1363 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 452–453.
  42. ↑ Cottam, Nāsiyūnālīsm dar Īrān, 1371 Sh, p. 221.
  43. ↑ Ramaḍān Nargisī, "ʿAzādārī-yi Imām Ḥusayn (ʿAlayhi al-Salām) dar Dawri-yi Pahlawī-yi Awwal", pp. 33–34.
  44. ↑ Baṣīrat-manish, ʿUlamā wa Rizhīm-i Riḍā Shāh, 1378 Sh, pp. 254, 398, 434; Āyat Allāh Shāh-ābādī Cultural Foundation, ʿĀrif-i Kāmil, 1380 Sh, p. 97.
  45. ↑ Bābā'ī, Sāzmān-i Rūḥāniyyat-i Shīʿa dar ʿAṣr-i Riḍā Shāh Pahlawī, 1389 Sh, pp. 149–155; Nīkūbarsharād, "Barrasī-yi Siyāsat-i Dīnī — Farhangī dar ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī (Dawri-yi Ḥukūmat-i Riḍā Shāh)", published on the Political Studies and Research Base.
  46. ↑ Baṣīrat-manish, ʿUlamā wa Rizhīm-i Riḍā Shāh, 1378 Sh, pp. 89–91.
  47. ↑ Amīnī, Chālish-hā-yi Rūḥāniyyat wa Riḍā Shāh, 1382 Sh, p. 248
  48. ↑ Kūhistānī, "Mu'assis-yi Waʿẓ wa Khiṭāba", pp. 100–105.
  49. ↑ Taghīyīr-i Libās wa Kashf-i Ḥijāb bi-Rawāyat-i Asnād, 1378 Sh, Document no. 2, pp. 10–11.
  50. ↑ Cottam, Nāsiyūnālīsm dar Īrān, 1399 Sh, p. 181.
  51. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 6, p. 253.
  52. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 6, pp. 254–258.
  53. ↑ Abrahamian, Īrān Bayna Du Inqilāb, p. 144; Baṣīrat-manish, ʿUlamā wa Rizhīm-i Riḍā Shāh, 1386 Sh, p. 193.
  54. ↑ Āriyābakhshāyish, "Niẓām-i Ijbārī", pp. 48–52.
  55. ↑ Niyāzī, "Niẓām-i Khidmat-i Ijbārī wa Millat-sāzī-yi Riḍā Khān", published on the base of the Institute for Political Studies and Research.
  56. ↑ Rājī and Aḥmadī, "Mawāḍiʿ-i Fuqahā dar Qibāl-i Taṣwīb wa Ijrā-yi Qānūn-i Khidmat-i Niẓām-i Ijbārī", p. 517.
  57. ↑ Cronin, Artish wa Ḥukūmat-i Pahlawī, 1377 Sh, p. 451; Qā'im-maqāmī, "Waraqī az Tārīkh-i Artish-i Īrān: Tārīkh-chi-yi Sarbāz-gīrī dar Īrān", p. 69.
  58. ↑ Qā'im-maqāmī, "Waraqī az Tārīkh-i Artish-i Īrān: Tārīkh-chi-yi Sarbāز-gīrī dar Īrān", p. 89; Rājī and Aḥmadī, "Mawāḍiʿ-i Fuqahā dar Qibāl-i Taṣwīb wa Ijrā-yi Qānūn-i Khidmat-i Niẓām-i Ijbārī", p. 530.
  59. ↑ "Māddih-yi Awwal, Qānūn-i Khidmat-i Niẓām-i Ijbārī, Muṣawwab-i Sāl-i 1304 Sh", published on the base of the Research Center of the National Consultative Assembly.
  60. ↑ Hidāyat, Khāṭirāt wa Khaṭarāt, 1329 Sh, p. 479; Niyāzī, "Niẓām-i Khidmat-i Ijbārī wa Millat-sāzī-yi Riḍā Khān", published on the base of the Institute for Political Studies and Research.
  61. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, pp. 397–398.
  62. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, pp. 415–418.
  63. ↑ Bābā'ī, Sāzmān-i Rūḥāniyyat-i Shīʿa dar ʿAṣr-i Riḍā Shāh Pahlawī, 1389 Sh, p. 140.
  64. ↑ ʿĀqilī, Dāwar wa ʿAdliyya, 1369 Sh, pp. 173–175; Āshnā, Az Siyāsat tā Farhang, 1384 Sh, p. 118.
  65. ↑ Āshnā, Az Siyāsat tā Farhang, 1384 Sh, p. 118.
  66. ↑ Ṣadr, Khāṭirāt-i Ṣadr al-Ashrāf, 1364 Sh, p. 288.
  67. ↑ Qudsī-zād, "ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī-yi Awwal", p. 847.
  68. ↑ Foran, Muqāwamat-i Shikananda, 1377 Sh, p. 338.
  69. ↑ Āl-i Aḥmad, Dar Khidmat wa Khiyānat-i Rūshinfikrān, 1374 Sh, pp. 393–400.
  70. ↑ Bahār, Tārīkh-i Mukhtaṣar-i Aḥzāb-i Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1371 Sh, p. 9; Madani, Tārīkh-i Siyāsī-yi Muʿāṣir-i Īrān, 1375 Sh, vol. 1, p. 239; Mulā'ī Tawānī, Mashrūṭa wa Jumhūrī, 1381 Sh, pp. 419–420.
  71. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Ṣaḥīf-yi Nūr, 1361 Sh, vol. 7, p. 4; vol. 3, p. 220.
  72. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 36.
  73. ↑ Makkī, Tārīkh-i Bīst Sāli-yi Īrān, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 37.
  74. ↑ Dawlat-ābādī, Ḥayāt-i Yaḥyā, 1362 Sh, vol. 4, p. 364.
  75. ↑ Nīkūbarsharād, "Barrasī-yi Siyāsat-i Dīnī — Farhangī dar ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī (Dawri-yi Ḥukūmat-i Riḍā Shāh)", published on the website of the Institute for Political Studies and Research.
  76. ↑ Cottam, Nāsiyūnālīsm dar Īrān, 1371 Sh, p. 177.
  77. ↑ Bābā'ī, Sāzmān-i Rūḥāniyyat dar ʿAṣr-i Riḍā Shāh Pahlawī, 1389 Sh, pp. 99–101
  78. ↑ Dawānī, Nahḍat-i Rūḥāniyyūn-i Īrān, 1360 Sh, vol. 2, p. 156.
  79. ↑ Yād Journal, "Sīri-yi Ṣāliḥān: Mujāhid-i Bāfqī", p. 106; Manẓūr al-Ajdād, Marjiʿiyyat dar ʿArṣ-i Ijtimāʿ wa Siyāsat, 1379 Sh, pp. 328-329.
  80. ↑ Rā'īn, Wāqiʿ-yi Gawharshād bi-Rawāyatī Dīgar, 1379 Sh, pp. 57-58.
  81. ↑ "Shahrīwar 1320; Chirā Artish-i Riḍā Shāh dar Barābar-i Muttafiqīn Muqāwamat Nakard?", Tasnim News Agency.
  82. ↑ Dūrandīsh, "Rizhīm-i Riḍā Shāh Chigūni Rizhīmī Būd?", Asr-e Iran site.
  83. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 27.
  84. ↑ Kāẓimī, "Arziyābī-yi Rūykird-i Tashakkul-i Madhhabī 'Jāmiʿ-yi Taʿlīmāt-i Islāmī' dar Barābar-i Mas'ali-yi Āmūzish", p. 128.
  85. ↑ Karamī-pūr, "Jāmiʿ-yi Taʿlīmāt-i Islāmī, Gūshih-ī az Faʿālīyyat-i Farhangī-yi Nīrūhā-yi Madhhab dar ʿAṣr-i Pahlawī", Comprehensive Portal of Human Sciences.
  86. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 176.
  87. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 34.
  88. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 34.
  89. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 34.
  90. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Jaryānhā wa Sāzmānhā-yi Madhhabī-Siyāsī-yi Īrān, 1392 Sh, p. 34.

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