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Kufr

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Kufr (Arabic: الكفر) stands in opposition to Islam and denotes the denial of God, His oneness, the prophethood of the Prophet (s), or the denial of any of the essential tenets of the religion. A person who denies any of these is referred to as a kafir. In Islamic jurisprudence, specific legal rulings are prescribed concerning a kafir; among them is that the body of a kafir is not considered ritually pure, and that marriage between a Muslim and a kafir is not permissible.

According to the fatwa of Shi'a jurists, declaring the Ahl al-Qibla to be unbelievers (takfir) is not permissible. They define the Ahl al-Qibla as followers of other Islamic schools who do not deny any of the essential tenets of the religion. On this basis, Shi'a jurists hold that sects and groups such as the Kharijites, Nasibis, and Ghulat—who deny certain essential doctrines of Islam—are judged to be unbelievers.

In reports transmitted from the Imams of the Shia, a person who commits certain sins, such as bribery, hypocrisy, or abandoning prayer, is described as a kafir. It is said that the intended meaning of kufr in these narrations is practical disbelief (kufr 'amali), by which is meant disobedience and rebellion against God's commands. Jurists state that committing such sins constitutes practical disbelief, and that the individual is therefore not subject to the juristic rulings that apply to unbelievers, such as ritual impurity or the prohibition of marriage with Muslims.

Status of Kufr

It is said that the term kufr and its various derivatives appear more than five hundred times in the Qur'an,[1] in a range of meanings, including denial of God, denial of prophethood, denial of the Resurrection, ingratitude for divine blessings, belief in the Trinity and in the divinity of human beings, apostasy, polytheism, neglect of divine commands, and other related senses.[2]

In the hadith literature as well, reports concerning kufr have been transmitted. For example, al-Kulayni, in his book al-Kafi, compiled chapters entitled "Bab wujuh al-kufr" (Chapter on aspects of disbelief) and "Bab da'a'im al-kufr wa shu'abihi" (Chapter on pillars and branches of disbelief), in which he gathered narrations addressing the types and branches of disbelief.[3] Likewise, al-Hurr al-'Amili, in Wasa'il al-Shi'a, devoted a section entitled "Establishing Disbelief and Apostasy through the Denial of Certain Essentials of the Religion" to this topic and collected relevant narrations therein.[4]

Issues related to kufr, including its definition, boundaries, categories, conditions, and legal rulings, are discussed across various Islamic disciplines, such as Qur'anic exegesis, theology, and jurisprudence.[5]

Definition and Categories of Kafir

Kufr stands in contrast to Islam and denotes the denial of God, His oneness, the prophethood of the Prophet (s), the Day of Resurrection, or—more generally—the denial of the essentials of the religion.[6] According to another definition, kufr is the denial and rejection of something whose affirmation and acknowledgement are obligatory.[7] A person who denies any one of these matters, or all of them, is referred to as a kafir.[8]

From a lexical perspective, the term kufr means "to cover" or "to conceal."[9] Accordingly, a person who covers up—meaning deliberately conceals—the signs that indicate the existence of God and His oneness is described as a kafir.[10]

Types of Kafir

Main article: Kafir

In Islamic jurisprudence, a kafir is classified into several categories, including the original kafir,[11] the apostate,[12] the People of the Book,[13] the dhimmi kafir,[14] and the harbi kafir.[15] Both shared rulings and category-specific legal rulings are discussed for these groups; among them are the following:

  • A kafir is considered ritually impure (najis);[16] however, contrary to the majority opinion, some jurists hold that the People of the Book are not impure.[17]
  • A Muslim woman may not marry a kafir, nor may a Muslim man marry a kafir woman;[18] however, some jurists permit a Muslim man to enter into a temporary marriage (mut'ah) with a woman from the People of the Book.[19]
  • Consuming the meat of an animal slaughtered by a kafir is prohibited.[20]

Practical Disbelief

Practical disbelief refers to the failure to act according to God's commandments, in contrast to obedience.[21] In some traditions, individuals who deliberately abandon prayer, neglect the Hajj pilgrimage, take bribes, engage in ostentation (riya'), or commit certain other sins are described as kafir.[22] It is said that the term kufr in these narrations refers to practical disbelief, not the disbelief that places someone outside the fold of Islam.[23]

Denial of the Essentials of Religion

Main article: Essentials of the religion

According to the consensus of Muslim jurists, the denial of the essentials of religion constitutes disbelief (kufr), and a person who denies one or all of these essentials is considered a kafir.[24] The essentials of religion are matters that are certain and clearly part of the faith, about which there is no doubt regarding their religious status.[25]

According to jurists, the denial of essentials that pertain to the practical rulings of Islam constitutes disbelief (kufr) only if it leads to the denial or rejection of the prophethood of Muhammad (s).[26] Some scholars, however, hold that even if such a denial does not result in rejecting the prophethood, it constitutes an independent cause of disbelief, by which the person becomes a kafir.[27]

Islamic Sects Considered Kafir

According to Twelver Shi'a jurists, certain Muslim sects and groups—such as the Khawarij, the Nasibis, the Ghulat, the Mujassima (those who believe God has a corporeal form), the Mushabbiha (those who liken God to physical beings), and the Mujabbira[28]—are regarded as kafir because they deny essential tenets of the religion.[29]

According to Yusuf al-Bahrani, there is no disagreement among the Shia jurists that the Kharijites, Nasibis, and Ghaliyya are deemed ritually impure,[30] but there is divergence regarding the impurity of other groups.[31] Tabataba'i Yazdi, a Shia jurist and author of al-'Urwat ul-wuthqa, states that the Mujassima, Mujabbira, and Sufis who adhere to the doctrine of wahdat al-wujud are considered ritually pure if they observe Islamic rulings.[32]

Shia scholars consider followers of other Muslim sects, including Sunnis who profess the shahadah and hold no enmity toward the Ahl al-Bayt (a), to be Muslims.[33]

Excommunication of Ahl al-Qibla

Main article: Takfir of Ahl al-Qibla

Takfir refers to declaring a Muslim an unbeliever[34] or attributing disbelief to the ahl al-Qibla (those who face the Qibla in prayer).[35] According to Shia jurists, followers of other Islamic sects who pronounce the shahadah and do not deny any of the essentials of the religion, such as God's oneness, prophethood, or the Day of Resurrection, are considered Muslims, and it is not permissible to excommunicate them.[36]

Jurists such as Ibn Idris al-Hilli and Shahid al-Thani hold that attributing disbelief to someone who outwardly professes faith and is a Muslim is not only impermissible, but the person making such an accusation must also be subject to discretionary punishment.[37]

Abd al-Rahman Jaziri (d. 1360 AH/1941), an Egyptian Sunni jurist, states in his book Al-Fiqh 'ala al-madhahib al-arba'a that according to the Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools, it is impermissible to attribute disbelief to a Muslim, and if one does so, the accuser must be subject to discretionary punishment (ta'zir).[38]

Also, in the book Al‑Mawsu'at al‑fiqhiyyat al‑Kuwaitiyya, an encyclopedia of Sunni jurisprudence, the Shafi'is are reported to have held that whoever declares a Muslim to be an unbeliever (takfir) has himself committed unbelief, because by declaring a Muslim kafir, he has called Islam itself unbelief.[39] Nevertheless, in contemporary times—i.e., the 20th and 21st centuries—Wahhabis and Salafis have declared certain Muslim groups, particularly Shi'as, as disbelievers due to beliefs such as intercession, seeking means (Tawassul), and visiting graves.[40]

See Also

Notes

  1. ↑ Rūḥānī, al-Muʿjam al-iḥṣāʾī, vol. 1, p. 530.
  2. ↑ See: Bāb al-Ḥawāʾijī, Kufr dar Qurʾān, p. 131; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 3, p. 289; vol. 6, p. 69; vol. 4, p. 43; vol. 5, p. 113; Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 389.
  3. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 389,391.
  4. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 1, p. 30.
  5. ↑ See: Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 3, p. 289; vol. 6, p. 69; vol. 4, p. 43; vol. 5, p. 113; Subḥānī Tabrīzī, al-Īmān wa l-kufr, p. 49; Sayyid Murtaḍā, Rasāʾil al-sharīf al-Murtaḍā, vol. 2, p. 280; Ṭūsī, Iqtiṣād al-hādī, p. 140; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 21, p. 228; Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 763.
  6. ↑ Subḥānī Tabrīzī, al-Īmān wa l-kufr, p. 49.
  7. ↑ Sayyid Murtaḍā, Rasāʾil al-sharīf al-Murtaḍā, vol. 2, p. 280; Ṭūsī, Iqtiṣād al-hādī, p. 140.
  8. ↑ Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, al-Mufradāt, under the word "Kufr".
  9. ↑ Jawharī, Tāj al-lugha, under the word "Kufr".
  10. ↑ Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, under the word "Kufr".
  11. ↑ Ṣandūqdār, Aḥkām-i kāfarān wa murtaddān, p. 3.
  12. ↑ Mūsawī Ardabīlī, Fiqh al-ḥudūd wa al-taʿzīrāt, vol. 4, p. 44-46.
  13. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 21, p. 228.
  14. ↑ Mishkinī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, p. 470.
  15. ↑ Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, vol. 1, p. 763.
  16. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 6, p. 41-42.
  17. ↑ Jannātī, Ṭahārat al-kitābī, p. 20.
  18. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Karakī, Jāmiʿ al-maqāṣid, vol. 12, p. 391.
  19. ↑ See: Waḥīd Khurāsānī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, p. 660; Sīstānī, Tawḍīh al-masāʾil, p. 501.
  20. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, vol. 7, p. 208.
  21. ↑ Gharawī Tabrīzī, al-Tanqīḥ fī sharh-i ʿurwat al-wuthqā, vol. 3, p. 58-59.
  22. ↑ See: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 278-279; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 1, p. 69; vol. 11, p. 30; vol. 17, p. 96.
  23. ↑ Gharawī Tabrīzī, al-Tanqīḥ fī sharh-i ʿurwat al-wuthqā, vol. 3, p. 59; Mishkinī, Muṣṭalaḥāt al-fiqh, p. 279.
  24. ↑ See: Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, vol. 1, p. 45; Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Durūs al-sharʿīyya, vol. 2, p. 51; Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, vol. 1, p. 150; A group of authors. al-Mawsūʿat al-fiqhīyya al-Kuwaytīyya, vol. 14, p. 164.
  25. ↑ See: Muqaddas Ardibīlī, Majmaʿ al-fāʾida wa al-burhān, vol. 3, p. 199.
  26. ↑ Hamadānī, Miṣbāḥ al-faqīh, vol. 7, p. 276; Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā, vol. 1, p. 144.
  27. ↑ ʿĀmilī, Miftāḥ al-karāma, vol. 1, p. 143.
  28. ↑ The Mujabbira are a group that deny human free will, attributing all voluntary actions solely to God (Shahristānī, al-Milal wa al-Niḥal, 1985, vol. 1, p. 97).
  29. ↑ See: Ṭūsī, al-Mabsūṭ, vol. 1, p. 14; Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-ifhām, vol. 1, p. 82; Baḥrānī, al-Ḥadāʾiq al-nāḍira, vol. 1, p. 421; vol. 22, p. 199; Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā, vol. 1, p. 145.
  30. ↑ Baḥrānī, al-Ḥadāʾiq al-nāḍira, vol. 1, p. 421.
  31. ↑ Baḥrānī, al-Ḥadāʾiq al-nāḍira, vol. 1, p. 421.
  32. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā, vol. 1, p. 145.
  33. ↑ See: Anṣārī, Kitāb al-ṭahara, vol. 5, p. 325; Khoeī, Miṣbāḥ al-fiqāha, vol. 3, p. 236; Khomeinī, Kitāb al-ṭahara, vol. 3, p. 635.
  34. ↑ Fayyūmī, Miṣbāḥ al-munīr, under the word "Takfir".
  35. ↑ ʿAbd al-Munʿim, Muʿjam al-muṣṭalaḥāt wa l-alfāẓ al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 487.
  36. ↑ See: Muḥaqqiq al-Karakī, Jāmiʿ al-maqāṣid, vol. 1, p. 164; Anṣārī, Kitāb al-ṭahara, vol. 5, p. 325; Khoeī, Miṣbāḥ al-fiqāha, vol. 3, p. 236; Khomeinī, Kitāb al-ṭahara, vol. 3, p. 635.
  37. ↑ Ḥillī, Kitāb al-sarāʾir, vol. 3, p. 529; Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, vol. 9. p. 175.
  38. ↑ Jazīrī, al-Fiqh ʿalā al-madhāhib al-arbaʿa, vol. 5, p. 194-195.
  39. ↑ A group of authors. al-Mawsūʿat al-fiqhīyya al-Kuwaytīyya, vol. 22, p. 186.
  40. ↑ See: Munjid, Mawqiʿ al-Islām Suʾāl wa Jawāb, vol. 1, p. 938; Rufāʿī, al-Tawaṣṣul ilā ḥaqīqat al-tawassul, p. 185.

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