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Idrisid Dynasty

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An Idrisid coin bearing the inscription of the name "Ali"

The Idrisid dynasty (Arabic: الدولة الإدريسية) was the first Islamic government in Morocco, which some consider the earliest Shia government in the world. This dynasty was established in the late second/eighth century by Idris b. 'Abd Allah, a descendant of Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba (a).

The Idrisid dynasty ruled over Morocco and parts of present-day Algeria, lasting for nearly two centuries. It ultimately fell in 375/985-6 with the assassination of the Idrisid ruler by the Umayyads of al-Andalus (Andalusia).

The Idrisids are recognized for their significant role in spreading Islam, fostering the flourishing of Maghreb civilization, promoting justice, and driving economic prosperity. During their reign, the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was established, regarded as the world's first institution of higher education, which remains active to this day.

It is said that due to unfavorable conditions, the Idrisids did not actively promote Shiism among the people of the Maghreb. Their governance was based on a consultative system, with notables and elders playing a role in state decisions. For this reason, the Idrisid political system has been considered the closest to the Islamic model of governance.

Their competence in administering affairs, along with their descent from the Prophet (s), earned them widespread public acceptance. They did not resort to force to gain or consolidate power.

Today, the Idrisids are known as Ashraf (nobles) and continue to be highly respected among the people of the Maghreb. The Jouti, Mashishi, Alami, and Wazzani Ashraf are among the well-known existing Idrisid families.

Significance of the Idrisid Dynasty

The University of al-Qarawiyyin — recognized as the world’s oldest existing university and a landmark from the Idrisid era

The Idrisid dynasty is considered the first Shia government in the Islamic world and the earliest Islamic government in Morocco.[1] It is said to have played a significant role in spreading Islam to the region.[2] Additionally, it is regarded as one of the most influential states in the Western Islamic world,[3] having created a brilliant era.[4]

Scientific and Cultural Activities

The Idrisids' impact on culture and civilization is considered profound and significant, with the Maghreb civilization experiencing remarkable flourishing during their era.[5] The Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and University, recorded in the Guinness Book as the world's oldest existing university,[6] was established during the Idrisid period.[7] The city of Fez, where this mosque and university are located, was founded at the outset of Idrisid rule and later became a scientific hub and a destination for scholars from other regions.[8] Moreover, it is said that this period witnessed a remarkable literary flourishing.[9]

Social Activities

The Idrisid dynasty's success in justice and economy is attributed to its adherence to Islamic law and the promotion of equality between Arabs and African Berbers.[10] Idris's lack of bias toward Arab ethnicity fostered goodwill and attracted Berbers who opposed Arab exclusivity.[11] His establishment of familial ties with them further strengthened the foundations of the Idrisid government.[12]

The status of women during the Idrisid era is considered one of the positive aspects of this dynasty.[13] In this regard, the roles of Kenza, the wife of Idris I, and Husni, the wife of Idris II, in the administration of the government are noted.[14] Additionally, the founder of the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and University was a woman named Fatima al-Fihri.[15]

Political Characteristics

According to the author of The History and Civilization of the Maghreb, the Idrisids' governance method was the closest to the Islamic concept of Imamate.[16] Based on this account, they did not impose themselves on the people through oppressive military force or deceit; rather, their acceptance by the populace stemmed from their competence and their attribution to the Prophet (s). In the Idrisid political structure, power was not monopolized by the Imam; instead, it was a consultative system in which tribal leaders and elders played a role in state decisions, which led people to think of the government as belonging to them. This relationship with the people also contributed to the weakening of heretical groups.[17]

Historians have noted that the Idrisid dynasty permitted a degree of freedom of action to their opponents. For example, they provided refuge to a group that opposed them politically and religiously,[18] and even appointed individuals from among them as ministers.[19]

The Idrisids did not impose heavy taxes on the people, nor did they possess lavish palaces or indulge in extravagant lifestyles. The people removed the only individual among them who deviated from this path.[20]

Although the Idrisid dynasty possessed strong spiritual and moral influence and was highly respected among the people, it lacked exceptional political and military power[21] and suffered from administrative weaknesses. These shortcomings ultimately paved the way for their defeat at the hands of their enemies.[22]

Disagreements on the Religious Affiliation of the Idrisids

There is limited historical evidence regarding the religious affiliation of the Idrisids, leading to disagreements among historians.[23] Some consider Idris b. 'Abd Allah, the founder of the Idrisid dynasty, a Shia[24] and regard the Idrisid government as a Shia state.[25] Conversely, others have argued against this possibility.[26]

It has also been suggested that the Idrisids may have initially been Shia but later adopted Sunnism following the spread of the Maliki school in the Maghreb.[27] However, it should be noted that the descendants of Idris in the present era are Sunni.

Scholars who consider the Idrisids as Shia differ on whether they were Zaydi,[28] Ismailiyya,[29] or Twelver Shia.[30] Additionally, the Shiism of the Idrisid dynasty is described as being faint and weak, more political than doctrinal in nature.[31]

Reasons for the Idrisids being Shia

Some of the evidence cited for the Idrisids being Shia includes the following: Idris's sermons, which are said to explicitly affirm the right of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) to the caliphate; coins from the Idrisid era inscribed with the name of Imam 'Ali (a) and the phrase "Ali (a) is the best of people after the Prophet (s)" ('Ali khayr al-nas ba'd al-nabi); statements by figures such as al-Ash'ari and Ibn Khaldun affirming the Shiism of the Idrisid dynasty; and the acknowledgment of Shiism by subsequent Idrisid rulers.[32]

It is said that during the Idrisid era, the Maghreb was not ready for the promotion of Shiism, and the Idrisids did not actively strive to convert the people to Shiism. If any such efforts were made, their traces vanished in later periods.[33] Instead, they focused on countering the Kharijites, spreading love for the Ahl al-Bayt (a), and promoting Islam among Christians.[34]

Rise and Fall of the Idrisid Dynasty

The starting point of the Idrisid dynasty was the migration of Idris b. 'Abd Allah to the Maghreb. A survivor of the Fakhkh uprising,[35] he secretly traveled, disguised as the servant of a man named Rashid—who was, in fact, his own servant[36]—along with a commercial caravan from Medina to Egypt and then to the Maghreb.[37] It is said that Rashid played a significant role in the establishment and consolidation of the Idrisid Alid state.[38]

Some believe that Idris undertook his journey without prior planning, solely to escape Abbasid pursuit, and chose the Maghreb because his servant was a Berber from Africa. Others, however, argue that Idris's journey was premeditated, part of a larger chain of events.[39] It is said that the presence of Idris’s brothers in Africa, particularly in Tlemcen, facilitated his journey, and it is even claimed that this was not his first trip to the Maghreb. Additionally, it has been stated that he traveled there as part of the missionary efforts of Halwani and Sufyani, who were sent to the Maghreb by Imam al-Sadiq (a).[40]

After residing in Tangier for about two years, where his missionary efforts were unsuccessful,[41] Idris moved to Volubilis (Walili). There, he was warmly received by Ishaq b. Muhammad, the leader of the Awraba tribe. Ishaq married his daughter to Idris, stepped down from power in his favor, and called upon his people to pledge allegiance to Idris. Following the Awraba tribe, several other tribes also pledged their allegiance to Idris.[42] Thus, in 172/787-8 , with the allegiance of the Berber tribes, the Idrisid dynasty was established.[43] This dynasty endured for 375 years with various ups and downs, ultimately collapsing amidst conflicts and struggles with the Umayyads of al-Andalus and the Fatimids.[44]

Historical Periods of the Idrisid Dynasty

The history of the Idrisid dynasty is divided into two periods: the first, an era of power and effective governance; and the second, a time of fragmentation and unsuccessful attempts to restore authority, ultimately culminating in its decline.[45]

Yahya IV, the most powerful Idrisid sultan, who surpassed all other Idrisid rulers in power and territorial extent, faced the rise of the Fatimids and their attack on Fez. He was defeated in this battle and came under Fatimid control. It was agreed that he would remain the governor of Fez but deliver the Friday sermon in the name of the Fatimid caliph. The rest of the Idrisid territory was handed over to Musa b. Abi l-'Afiya, a governor appointed by the Fatimids. Musa, who also coveted Fez, later imprisoned and tortured Yahya, confiscated his wealth,[46] and exiled him along with his family. In this way, he seized the entire Idrisid realm.[47]

Later, a member of the Idrisid family named Hasan b. Muhammad al-Hajjam rose up in Fez and took control of the city and several surrounding areas. However, his rule was short-lived, and about two years later, Musa regained control of Fez. This time, he relocated the Idrisid family to the fortress of Hajar al-Nasr and placed them under siege.[48]

After several years of living in Hajar al-Nasr, the Idrisids seized an opportunity to kill the fortress commander and, upon escaping, took leadership of the surrounding tribes.[49] However, they once again failed to establish an independent state and were forced to accept the authority of the Umayyad caliph of Al-Andalus to remain in power.[50]

As political dynamics shifted, the Idrisid dynasty changed hands several times between the Umayyads and the Fatimids, ultimately coming to an end in 375/985-6 with the killing of the reigning Idrisid ruler by the Umayyads of Al-Andalus.

It is noteworthy that approximately thirty years later, one of the Idrisid survivors named 'Ali b. Hammud succeeded in overthrowing the Umayyad rule in Al-Andalus and established a new government known as the Hammudid dynasty in Al-Andalus.[51] Additionally, in the first half of the fourteenth/twentieth century, an Idrisid descendant established a state in limited areas of the Arabian Peninsula, reviving the name of the Idrisid dynasty once again.[52]

Idrisid Rulers

Tomb of Idris II in the city of Fez, Morocco

Idris b. ‘Abd Allah b. al-Hasan al-Muthanna, a descendant of Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba (a), was the founder and first ruler of the Idrisid dynasty. He is described as a virtuous, learned, well-mannered, just, courageous, generous, and poetic individual.[53]

After the establishment of the Idrisid state and its initial conquests, the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid felt threatened and sent a man named Sulayman b. Jarir, known as Shammakh, who is said to have been a Zaydi theologian, to eliminate Idris.[54] Shammakh gained Idris’s trust and attained a high position in his court. While reciting the virtues of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) and arguing for Idris’s imamate in gatherings, one day, in the absence of Rashid, Shammakh poisoned Idris and fled.[55]

Following Idris's assassination, the wisdom and foresight of his servant Rashid saved the nascent Idrisid state from collapse. Rashid gathered the notables and leaders, proposing that they wait until Idris’s wife gave birth. If the child was a boy, they would pledge allegiance to him; if a girl, they would choose a leader from among themselves. When it was confirmed that Idris’s child was a boy, he was named after his father, and Rashid took charge of his upbringing, teaching him jurisprudence, hadith, and martial skills. At the age of eleven, Rashid secured the pledge of allegiance for him.[56] Idris II independently assumed control of the government at the age of seventeen.[57]

In total, thirteen Idrisid rulers and imams governed, of which nine belonged to the first period, and four were rulers of the second period who paid tribute to either the Fatimids or the Umayyads.[58]

  • Idris I
  • Idris II
  • Muhammad b. Idris (al-Muntasir)
  • 'Ali b. Muhammad b. Idris
  • Yahya I b. Muhammad
  • Yahya II b. Yahya
  • 'Ali b. 'Umar b. Idris
  • Yahya III al-Miqdam
  • Yahya IV
  • Hasan al-Hajjam
  • Qasim b. Muhammad
  • Abu l-'Aysh Ahmad b. Qasim
  • Hasan b. Qasim al-Jannun

Idrisid Political Relations

The Kharijites, one of the neighboring states of the Idrisids, had tense relations with them due to doctrinal and political differences. Idris II dealt harshly with the Kharijites, and his son also maintained strained relations with them.[59] The conflict between the Kharijites and the Idrisids persisted until the end of the first period of Idrisid rule, culminating in one instance during the reign of 'Ali b. 'Umar b. Idris, when the Kharijites seized parts of the Idrisid capital.[60]

The relations between the Idrisids and their Umayyad neighbors were generally marked by hostility. However, during the reign of Abu l-'Aysh Ahmad b. Qasim, one of the Idrisid rulers of the second period, became an ally of the Umayyads.[61]

The Aghlabids, another neighbor of the Idrisid dynasty, occasionally supported them against the Umayyads but also acted as a source of pressure from the Abbasid caliphate on the Idrisids.[62] The Fatimids adopted a dual policy toward the Idrisids, ultimately conquering their territory and making them tributaries.[63]

It is reported that the Idrisid state sent an envoy to the court of Charlemagne.[64]

Realm of the Idrisids

The Idrisids at their peak

The Idrisids ruled over the Maghreb al-Aqsa, which corresponds to territories encompassing parts of present-day Morocco and Algeria.[65]

During its first period, when the Idrisid dynasty enjoyed power and independence, it expanded its territory northward to include Oran and Tlemcen.[66] Similarly, in the south, it extended its reach to Souss al-Aqsa and even further southern regions.[67] The Moulay Idriss River was identified as the eastern boundary of their domain.[68]

During the first period of Idrisid rule, the city of Fez, established by Idris II, served as the capital of the Idrisids.[69] In the second period, the Idrisids' control was limited to a few cities, including Basra (a city in the Maghreb al-Aqsa, located between Tangier and Fez[70]), Asilah, and Hajar al-Nasr.[71]

Idrisid Figures Throughout History

The Idrisids, known as Ashraf (nobles), continue to be highly respected among the people of the Maghreb.[72] Prominent and enduring Idrisid families include the Jouti, Mashishi, Alami, and Wazzani.[73]

Throughout history, the Idrisid lineage has produced influential and notable figures who have made significant contributions in various fields, including science, culture, politics, and more. Among the well-known Idrisid personalities are Sharif Idrisi, 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri, Muhammad b. 'Ali al-'Alawi, and the Ghumari (or Ghimari) brothers.

  • Sharif Idrisi: Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Idrisi, known as Sharif al-Idrisi, was a renowned geographer of the fifth/eleventh and sixth/twelfth centuries, a descendant of the Hammudids of al-Andalus and, through them, of the Idrisids.[74] NASA has named a region on Pluto in his honor. He is also recognized as a skilled physician, pharmacologist, and poet.[75] His book, Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq (The Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands), is considered a significant work in geography.[76]

He crafted a small, spherical model of the Earth made of silver, which is no longer available. However, the maps he drew still exist, and they were published by a German researcher named Konrad Miller in 1997.[77]

  • The Ghumari Brothers: Ahmad, 'Abd al-'Aziz, and 'Abd Allah Ghumari, among the most prominent Sunni hadith scholars in recent centuries,[78] were opponents of Ibn Taymiyya and Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab[79] and were descendants of the Idrisids.[80]
  • Muhammad b. 'Ali al-'Alawi: A fifteenth/twenty-first-century Maliki jurist and a critic of Wahhabism.[81]
  • Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Idrisi: He was a member of the Idrisid family who established a state in parts of the Arabian Peninsula in the fourteenth/twentieth century, known as the Idrisid State.[82] This state controlled Sabya, Tihama, Asir, and Jazan from 1327/1909 until it was defeated by the House of Saud in 1351/1932.[83]

Notes

  1. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97.
  2. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97.
  3. ↑ ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 86.
  4. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 392.
  5. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 150.
  6. ↑ Oldest higher-learning institution. (English).
  7. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 363.
  8. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, p. 224.
  9. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 153.
  10. ↑ Saʿdūn ʿAbbās, Tārīkh al-ʿArab al-sīyāsī quoted in Dānishkīyā, Girāyish-i madhhabī-yi Idrīsīyān, p. 19.
  11. ↑ Makkī & Mūsā, al-Tashayyuʿ fī l-Andalus, p. 17.
  12. ↑ ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 84.
  13. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 161.
  14. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 161.
  15. ↑ Ibn Khaldūn, Tārīkh Ibn Khaldūn, vol. 4, p. 20.
  16. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 374-377.
  17. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 377-380.
  18. ↑ Ginnūn, al-Nubūgh al-Maghribī fī l-adab al-ʿArabī, p. 46.
  19. ↑ ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 86.
  20. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 377-380.
  21. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 377-380.
  22. ↑ Milī Jazāʾirī, Tārīkh al-Jazāʾir fī l-qadīm wa l-ḥadīth, vol. 2, p. 112.
  23. ↑ ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 73.
  24. ↑ Zubayb, Dawlat al-tashayyuʿ fī bilād al-Maghrib, p. 100.
  25. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 145.
  26. ↑ ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 73.
  27. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 145.
  28. ↑ Milī Jazāʾirī, Tārīkh al-Jazāʾir fī l-qadīm wa l-ḥadīth, vol. 2, p. 97; Jaʿfarīyān, Aṭlas-i Shīʿa, p. 549.
  29. ↑ Maqdisī, Aḥsan al-taqāsīm, vol. 1, p. 341.
  30. ↑ Dānishkīyā, Girāyish-i madhhabī-yi Idrīsīyān, p. 87.
  31. ↑ Jaʿfarīyān, Aṭlas-i Shīʿa, p. 549.
  32. ↑ Dānishkīyā, Girāyish-i madhhabī-yi Idrīsīyān, p. 86-87.
  33. ↑ Dānishkīyā, Girāyish-i madhhabī-yi Idrīsīyān, p. 91.
  34. ↑ Dānishkīyā, Girāyish-i madhhabī-yi Idrīsīyān, p. 91.
  35. ↑ Maqdisī, Aḥsan al-taqāsīm, vol. 1, p. 243.
  36. ↑ Sanūsī, al-Durar al-sanīyya, p. 44.
  37. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97.
  38. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 353.
  39. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 346.
  40. ↑ Zubayb, Dawlat al-tashayyuʿ fī bilād al-Maghrib, p. 8.
  41. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 353.
  42. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol. 1, p. 208-216.
  43. ↑ Ibn ʿIdhārī, al-Bayān al-mughrib, vol. 1, p. 83.
  44. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 261.
  45. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 366.
  46. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 239.
  47. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 365-366.
  48. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 240-242.
  49. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 366-367.
  50. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 371.
  51. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 255-261.
  52. ↑ Al-Idrisi (Muhammad b. Ali al-Idrisi). (Arabic).
  53. ↑ Iṣfahānī, Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyyīn, p. 409; Ibn ʿIdhārī, al-Bayān al-mughrib, vol. 1, p. 84.
  54. ↑ Sanūsī, al-Durar al-sanīyya, p. 7.
  55. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 208-216.
  56. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 216-217.
  57. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 356-358.
  58. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97.
  59. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 100.
  60. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 364-365.
  61. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 371-372.
  62. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 101.
  63. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 101.
  64. ↑ Sāʾiḥī, al-Ḥaḍāra al-islāmīyya fī l-Maghrib, p. 161.
  65. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97; ʿĀlimzāda & Ābāngāh, Madhhab-i Idrīsīyān, p. 75.
  66. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 261.
  67. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 361.
  68. ↑ Mūnis, Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib, vol. 1, p. 361.
  69. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 261.
  70. ↑ Basra 2 or Basra of Maghrib
  71. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 261.
  72. ↑ Dhikāwat, Taʾammulī dar mūrid-i chigūnigī-yi shakl gīrī-yi ḥukūmat-i Idrīsīyān, p. 97.
  73. ↑ Salāwī, al-Istiqṣā, vol.1, p. 230-235.
  74. ↑ Biography of Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Idrisi. (French).
  75. ↑ The Mountainous Shoreline of Sputnik Planum. (English).
  76. ↑ Muḥammad al-Idrīsī (English).
  77. ↑ Muḥammad al-Idrīsī (English).
  78. ↑ Bāghchīqī, ʿĀlimān-i muntaqid-i Wahhābīyat: Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Ṣiddīq Ghumārī.
  79. ↑ 'Abd Allah b. Siddiq Ghamari. (Persian); Bāghchīqī, ʿĀlimān-i muntaqid-i Wahhābīyat: Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Ṣiddīq Ghumārī.
  80. ↑ Ibn al-Ḥājj, Isʿāf al-ikhwān al-rāghibīn bi-tarājum thulla min ʿulamāʾ al-Maghrib al-muʿāṣirīn, p. 34.
  81. ↑ Ḥasanī, al-ʿUqūd al-luʾluʾīyya, p. 333.
  82. ↑ ʿAqīlī, Tārīkh al-mikhlāf al-Sulaymānī, vol. 2, p. 728.
  83. ↑ Al-Idrisi (Muhammad b. Ali al-Idrisi). (Arabic).

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  • Ibn ʿIdhārī, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad. Al-Bayān al-mughrib fī akhbār al-Andulus wa l-Maghrib. Edited by G. S. Colin and Évariste Lévi-Provençal. Beirut: Dār al-Thaqāfa, [n.d].
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  • Ibn Khaldūn, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muḥammad. Tārīkh Ibn Khaldūn. Edited by Suhayl Zakār and Khalīl Shaḥāda. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1408 AH.
  • Iṣfahānī, Abū l-Faraj al-. Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyyīn. Edited by Aḥmad Ṣaqar. Beirut: Muʾassisat al-Aʿlamī li-l-Maṭbūʿāt, 1419 AH.
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  • Milī Jazāʾirī, Mubārik b. Muḥammad al-. Tārīkh al-Jazāʾir fī l-qadīm wa l-ḥadīth. Al-Jazāʾir: al-Muʾassisat al-Waṭanīyya li-l-Kitāb, 1406 AH.
  • Mūnis, Ḥusayn. Tārīkh wa tamaddun-i Maghrib. Translated by Ḥamīd Riḍā Shaykhī. Tehran: Intishārāt-i Samt, 1384 Sh.
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  • Saʿdūn ʿAbbās, Naṣr Allāh. Tārīkh al-ʿArab al-sīyāsī fī l-Maghrib min al-fatḥ al-ʿArabī ḥattā suqūṭ Gharnāṭa. [n.p]: [n.n], [n.d].
  • Zubayb, Najīb. Dawlat al-tashayyuʿ fī bilād al-Maghrib. 1st edition. Beirut: Dār al-Amīr li-l-Thaqāfa wa l-ʿUlūm, 1413 AH.
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