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Shar'i Hudud (singular: Hadd) refers to non-financial punishments and penalties determined in the Shari'a for certain specific sins. The type, amount, and method of execution of these categories of punishments have been determined in the Qur'an and/or narrations. Hudud are usually physical punishments such as flogging. Hadd is sometimes used in the general sense of punishment, in which case it also includes ta'zirat, but in the specific jurisprudential sense, ta'zir refers to punishments whose type, size, and quality of execution have not appeared in Shar'i sources and their determination is at the discretion of the judge. A part of the hudud relates to illicit sexual relations such as zina and sodomy.

There is disagreement among jurists regarding the number of hudud, and they have sometimes counted the hudud as eight and sometimes as sixteen cases. In hudud, pardon, compromise, and compensation are not posited. Hudud, except for the hadd of theft and qadhf, are considered the Right of God (Haqq Allah). Jurisprudential books in most cases include a section titled "Hudud" which expresses specific punishments, conditions, quality of execution, and other issues related to hudud.

The execution of Shar'i hudud depends on conditions. Some Shi'a jurists believe that the execution of Shar'i hadd is among the exclusive rights of the Shi'a Imams, and others do not accept such an exclusivity and believe that hudud can be executed during the Occultation of the Infallible Imam (a) as well.

Terminology

Hadd refers to non-financial punishments that have been determined in the Shari'a of Islam for specific crimes. The extent and how these determined punishments are executed have been expressed in Islamic sources.[1] Sometimes the word hadd is used in a broader sense, such that it also includes other punishments like ta'zirat.[2] Some have also defined hadd as crimes with specified punishments.[3]

Characteristics of Hudud Punishments

Hudud possesses characteristics in comparison with other Shar'i punishments such as qisas and ta'zirat, including:

  • It is not subject to compromise or taking compensation.
  • It does not possess the capability of pardon.
  • There is no intercession in it (except for qadhf).[4]
  • Its execution is restricted to the Infallible Imam or his successor.[5]
  • Except for theft and qadhf, the execution of hudud is not dependent on filing a complaint and bringing a lawsuit.
  • Hudud relate to the Right of God (Haqq Allah) except for qadhf and theft.
  • The type, amount, and quality of execution of hudud have been specified in the Shari'a.[6]

From this aspect, most Imamiyya jurists have not considered qisas to be one of the hudud.[7]

Hudud Crimes

In determining the number of sins and crimes by the commission of which Shar'i hadd is established, there is disagreement among Shi'a jurists.[8] Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī in Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām considered hudud crimes to be six cases,[9] and Shahīd al-Thānī in the book Masālik al-afhām added the two cases of muharaba[10] and apostasy[11] to these cases and counted hudud crimes as eight cases, and some like Ayatollah al-Khoei consider up to 16 cases to be hudud.[12]

Crimes which most Shi'a jurists have considered as necessitating hadd consist of:

Template:Col-3

  1. Zina: Sexual intercourse between a man and a woman
  2. Sodomy: Sexual intercourse between two men
  3. Musahaqa: Sexual intercourse between two women
  4. Qiyada: Pimping; acting as an intermediary between two people to establish an illicit relation
  5. Qadhf

Template:Col-3

  1. Theft
  2. Drinking wine
  3. Muharaba
  4. Apostasy
  5. Tafkhidh

Template:Col-3

  1. Claiming prophethood
  2. Insulting the Prophet and the Shi'a Imams and Lady Fatima (a)
  3. Magic if the magician is a Muslim.


The hudud status of some crimes is also disputed and only some jurists believe in determining a hadd for them. Some of these crimes include:

  • The marriage of a Muslim man with a concubine or a dhimmi woman and having intercourse with them before permission from his free Muslim wife.[13] According to al-Khoei, if someone marries a free non-Muslim woman (People of the Book) while he has a Muslim wife and has intercourse with her before obtaining the consent of his Muslim wife despite knowing that this act is haram, one-eighth of the hadd for zina is executed upon him, and if his wife does not consent, he must separate from the dhimmi woman.[14]
  • Kissing a young boy out of lust by a person who is in ihram.[15]
  • Buying and selling a free human being.[16]

Types

Template:Responsive table/Start

Punishment Crime
Execution Sodomy,[17] performing magic and sorcery if the magician is Muslim,[18] Zina with consanguineous mahrams,[19] zina along with violence and compulsion,[20] one who does not have a spouse and has committed zina three times and hadd has been executed upon him is executed at the fourth stage,[21] insulting the Prophet of Islam (s) and the Ahl al-Bayt (a),[22] claiming prophethood,[23] the apostasy of a Muslim man.[24]
Stoning Zina al-muhsana[25]
Lashes 12.5 lashes in marriage along with intercourse of a Muslim man with a concubine or a dhimmi woman before permission from his free Muslim wife;[26] lashes in the zina of a slave[27] and 100 lashes in the zina of a Muslim without a spouse, 100 lashes in tafkhidh[28] and musahaqa[29] and kissing along with lust of a young boy by an individual in ihram,[30] 75 lashes in qiyada,[31] 80 lashes in qadhf[32] and drinking intoxicating beverages.[33]
Amputation Amputation of fingers of the hand in theft,[34] selling a free human being.[35]
Exile Commission of zina in some cases[36] and qawwadi.[37]
Lashes + Stoning Zina al-muhsana of an old woman and man.[38]

Template:Responsive table/End

Muharaba

According to Shi'a narrational sources, the hadd of a muharib is execution, crucifixion, amputation, or exile, but as to which one of these punishments must be executed or what is the criterion for executing each one, there is disagreement among jurists.[39] In the view of some, the Shar'i judge has authority in choosing any of them; although it is better that this choice be with the observation of proportion between the crime and the punishment. For example, if the muharib has committed murder, his hadd is execution; in case of undertaking theft, the hadd is amputation; and if he only created fear and terror in the city, his hadd is exile.[40]

Ways of Proof

  • Confession (Iqrar): Voluntary confession and without compulsion of the person in which he clearly accepts the commission of the crime is among the ways of proving a hudud crime.[41] The form, how, and quality of confession and admission in different crimes may vary; for example, most Shi'a jurists have considered four confessions necessary for proving the crime of zina[42], sodomy[43], and musahaqa[44], and two confessions for proving the drinking of wine, qadhf, and qawwadi.[45]
  • Testimony of Witnesses: The testimony of individuals regarding the commission of the crime by the perpetrator is among the ways of proving punishment for him. The number and conditions of witnesses vary in different crimes[46]; for example, for proving sodomy and musahaqa, the testimony of 4 just men is necessary,[47] but in proving zina, the number and gender of witnesses can be one of these cases: 4 just men, 3 men and 2 women, or in some cases 2 men and 4 women.[48]
  • Judge's Knowledge: If the judge himself knows the realization of the crime and also recognizes its perpetrator, the punishment is established for the perpetrator and the judge rules based on his knowledge.[49]

Insufficiency of Witnesses

If the number of witnesses who are needed to be present for proving each hudud crime is less than the amount mentioned in the Shari'a, the crime is not proved and the hadd of qadhf is executed upon the individuals present for testimony. According to jurisprudential sources, one should not wait for the completion of the number. For example, for proving zina, 4 male witnesses are needed, and if 3 people are present and the fourth person is missing or is on the way to arrive, zina is not proved and the hadd of qadhf is executed upon those 3 people.[50]

Execution of Hadd

For the execution of some hudud, various methods have been mentioned; for instance, in the execution of the ruling of execution in sodomy, methods such as decapitation with a sword, throwing from a mountain, burning in fire, stoning, and demolishing a wall upon the criminal have been suggested.[51]

Dighth

In crimes whose hadd is flogging, if the criminal is ill, the execution of hadd will be delayed until the time of his recovery. In case there is a benefit in speeding up the execution of hadd, such as there being no hope for the individual's recovery, the hadd will be executed upon him by means of dighth. Dighth is a bundle of sticks and the like (reeds and thin branches) that is struck once upon the body of the criminal.[52] The amount of sticks is to the number of lashes that must be struck upon the accused as required by hadd; for example, if his hadd is one hundred lashes, the number of sticks will be one hundred. Striking all the sticks upon the body of the offender is not mandatory, and the number of sticks can also be divided into several bundles.[53]

Annulment of Hadd

  • Repentance: If the criminal repents before the proof of the sin and crime he has committed, the hadd is removed from him; but repentance after the proof has no benefit. In where the occurrence of the crime has been proved by means of confession, the Shar'i judge has authority to either execute hadd upon the criminal in case of repentance or to pardon him.[54] In the view of jurists, the hadd of qadhf is not annulled by repenting.[55]
  • Minority of Age: Being mature is among the conditions of executing hadd, and a child who has committed one of the acts necessitating hadd cannot be punished.[56]
  • Insanity: Possessing reason is also among other conditions of a criminal who becomes entitled to hadd; therefore, the insanity of the perpetrator of the act prevents the execution of Shar'i hadd.[57]

Dar' Rule

Based on a rule in Islamic fiqh, in cases where the principle of occurrence or commission of the crime by the accused is faced with doubt, his punishment is negated.[58] This rule is famous among jurists as the Dar' Rule, which in legal terminology is also referred to with the title "interpretation in favor of the accused."[59] The Dar' rule is agreed upon by all Shi'a and Sunni jurists,[60] and is documented by many narrations, the most famous of which is the hadith "Warding off (idra'u) the hudud by doubts" from Prophet Muhammad (s).[61]

Compulsion and Coercion

In case an individual commits a crime with compulsion and coercion, the hadd is annulled from him.[62]

Compelling an individual to perform a sexual act causes the removal of hadd from him. All jurists accept the possibility of compelling a woman into zina, and most jurists accept the possibility of compelling a man into zina.[63] But some jurists believe that a man cannot be compelled into sexual intercourse against his will.[64]

Execution of Hudud in the Age of Occultation

Main article: Execution of Hudud

According to Shi'a fiqh, the execution of hudud is among the authorities of the Infallible Imam, and there is disagreement regarding who holds this responsibility during the absence of the Imam. Regarding the execution of hudud during the Occultation of the Infallible Imam, four theories exist:

Bibliography

  • Kayfar-i ḥudūd dar sharīʿat wa ṭarīqat, written by 'Ali Natiqi, Tehran 1390 Sh.
  • Mabānī wa sharāʾiṭ-i aqāma-yi ḥudūd dar ʿaṣr-i ghaybat, written by Sayyid Baqir Muhammadi, Nur al-Amin Publication, Qom 1402 Sh.
  • Sharāʾiṭ-i ʿumūmī-yi ajrā-yi ḥudūd, written by Muhammad 'Ali Majd Faqihi, Habib Publication, Qom 1403 Sh.
  • Sharāʾiṭ wa mawāniʿ-i ajrā-yi ḥudūd bā rūykardī taṭbīqī dar fiqh wa qānūn-i majāzāt-i Islāmī-yi jadīd, written by Rida 'Alijani Shalmani, Khorsandi Publication, Tehran 1398 Sh.

See Also

Notes

  1. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Riyāḍ al-masāʾil, 1412 AH, vol. 13, p. 415.
  2. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, 1387 Sh, vol. 3, p. 251.
  3. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 136.
  4. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, Muʾtamar al-Mawlā al-Mahdī al-Narāqī, vol. 28, p. 205.
  5. ↑ Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Publisher: Muʾassasa-yi Tanẓīm wa Nashr-i Āthār-i Imām Khumaynī (ra), vol. 1, p. 459.
  6. ↑ Ḥusaynī Wardjānī, Ajrā-yi ḥudūd dar Islām, 1383 Sh, pp. 27-28.
  7. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1409 AH, vol. 4, p. 932; Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-afhām, 1413-1419 AH, vol. 14, p. 325.
  8. ↑ Muḥammadī, Mashrūʿiyyat-i aqāma-yi ḥudūd wa taʿzīrāt dar ʿaṣr-i ghaybat, p. 45.
  9. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, vol. 4, p. 136.
  10. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-afhām, vol. 15, p. 5.
  11. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-afhām, vol. 15, p. 22.
  12. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, p. 203.
  13. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 372.
  14. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, p. 40.
  15. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 387.
  16. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, pp. 203-391.
  17. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 146.
  18. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 195.
  19. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 8, p. 8.
  20. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 141.
  21. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 8, p. 11.
  22. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 194.
  23. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, p. 322.
  24. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 17.
  25. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 8, p. 2; Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 141; Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379 AH, vol. 2, p. 463.
  26. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 50.
  27. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 8, p. 11.
  28. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 150.
  29. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 388.
  30. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, p. 298.
  31. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 149.
  32. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 188.
  33. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 456.
  34. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 528.
  35. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, p. 384.
  36. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, pp. 109-110.
  37. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 164.
  38. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, pp. 141-142; Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379 AH, vol. 2, pp. 463-464.
  39. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 573.
  40. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 493.
  41. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 49.
  42. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 8, p. 4.
  43. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 146.
  44. ↑ al-Shahīd al-Awwal, Al-Lumʿat al-Dimashqiyya, 1410 AH, p. 257.
  45. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 148.
  46. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 446.
  47. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 143 and p. 158.
  48. ↑ Ṭūsī, Al-Khilāf, Muʾassasa-yi Nashr-i Islāmī, vol. 6, p. 251; Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 125.
  49. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 40, p. 88.
  50. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 53.
  51. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 144.
  52. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, pp. 113-114.
  53. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 465.
  54. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, p. 148.
  55. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 428.
  56. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 456.
  57. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379, vol. 2, p. 456.
  58. ↑ Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1383 Sh, vol. 4, p. 43.
  59. ↑ Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1383 Sh, vol. 4, p. 43.
  60. ↑ Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1383 Sh, vol. 4, p. 48.
  61. ↑ Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1383 Sh, vol. 4, pp. 44-47.
  62. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 41, p. 265.
  63. ↑ Shahīd al-Thānī, Al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1386-1398 AH, vol. 9, p. 31.
  64. ↑ Fāḍil-i Hindī, Kashf al-lithām, 1405 AH, vol. 2, p. 393.
  65. ↑ al-Shaykh al-Ṭūsī, Al-Nihāya fī mujarrad al-fiqh wa-l-fatāwā, Dār al-Kitāb, pp. 300-301.
  66. ↑ Ibn Idrīs al-Ḥillī, Al-Sarāʾir al-ḥāwī li-taḥrīr al-fatāwā, 1414 AH, vol. 2, p. 24.
  67. ↑ Khwānsārī, Jāmiʿ al-madārik, 1364 Sh, vol. 5, p. 411.
  68. ↑ See: ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tabṣirat al-mutaʿallimīn fī aḥkām dīn, 1368 Sh, pp. 114-115; ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Mukhtalaf al-Shīʿa, 1413 AH, vol. 4, p. 463; ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, 1419 AH, vol. 9, p. 445.
  69. ↑ al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, Al-Muqniʿa, 1410 AH, p. 810.
  70. ↑ Khūʾī, Mabānī takmilat al-minhāj, Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī, vol. 1, p. 273.
  71. ↑ al-Shahīd al-Awwal, Al-Durūs al-sharʿiyya fī fiqh al-Imāmiyya, 1417 AH, vol. 2, p. 47; al-Shahīd al-Awwal, Al-Lumʿat al-Dimashqiyya, 1410 AH, p. 84.
  72. ↑ Imam Khumaynī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1379 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 482-483.
  73. ↑ Ibn Fahd al-Ḥillī, Al-Muhadhdhab al-bāriʿ fī sharḥ al-mukhtaṣar al-nāfiʿ, 1407 AH, vol. 2, p. 328.
  74. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 Sh, vol. 21, p. 396.
  75. ↑ Mīrzā-yi Qummī, Jāmiʿ al-shatāt fī ajwibat suʾālāt, 1371 Sh, vol. 1, p. 395.
  76. ↑ The Shar'i ways of proving hudud crimes consist of: 1- Four times confession originating from religious conscience and with perfect satisfaction and volition; 2- Testimony of four just witnesses with specific conditions. (Ṣāniʿī, Istiftāʾāt-i quḍāʾī, 1388 Sh, vol. 1, p. 92.)
  77. ↑ Ṣāniʿī, Istiftāʾāt-i quḍāʾī, 1388 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 92 and 94.

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  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Tabṣirat al-mutaʿallimīn fī aḥkām dīn, Tehran, Intishārāt-i Faqīh, 1368 Sh.
  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, Qom, Muʾassasat Āl al-Bayt li-Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth, 1419 AH.
  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Mukhtalaf al-Shīʿa, Qom, Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī, 1413 AH.
  • Fāḍil-i Hindī, Muḥammad b. Ḥasan Iṣfahānī, Kashf al-lithām, Qom, Public Library of Grand Ayatollah Marʿashī Najafī, 1405 AH.
  • Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Jaʿfar b. Ḥasan, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām fī masāʾil al-ḥalāl wa-l-ḥarām, edited by ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn Baqqāl, Qom, Ismāʿīliyān, 1408 AH.
  • Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Muṣṭafā, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, Tehran, Islamic Sciences Publication Center, 1383 Sh.
  • Mīrzā-yi Qummī, Abu l-Qāsim b. Muḥammad, Jāmiʿ al-shatāt fī ajwibat suʾālāt, edited by Murtaḍā Raḍawī, Tehran, Keyhan, 1371 Sh.
  • Najafī, Muḥammad Ḥasan, Jawāhir al-kalām, edited by Ibrāhīm Sulṭānīnasab, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1362 Sh.
  • Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Sayyid Maḥmūd, Farhang-i fiqh, Qom, Muʾassasa-yi Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif-i Islāmī, 1387 Sh.
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