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Draft:The Role of Time and Place in Ijtihad

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The Role of Time and Place in Ijtihad (Arabic: دور الزمان والمكان في الاجتهاد) is a theoretical concept within the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) that establishes a framework for the revision of certain fatwas. Integrating temporal and spatial dimensions into Ijtihad is believed to enhance the capacity of jurisprudence to address contemporary needs and resolve emerging challenges. Scholars note that while this theory is closely associated with Imam Khomeini, a Shi'a Marja' of the 14th/20th and 15th/21st centuries, it possesses earlier antecedents and can be identified in the works of al-Shahid al-Awwal, Muhammad Husayn Kashif al-Ghita, and Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr.

The concepts of "time" and "place" denote contextual characteristics that emerge in varying situations, necessitating alterations in jurisprudential subjects (Mawdu'at). Although Shi'a jurists generally regard time and place as having no bearing on the fundamental principles, methods, and sources of Ijtihad, some have extended the scope of their influence to the interpretation of religious texts. Examples of rulings subject to revision due to shifting temporal and spatial conditions include the judgment of a non-Mujtahid, the sale of human organs, the prohibition of playing Chess, various social and political ordinances, and the regulations regarding sacrifice during Hajj.

In 1995, a congress was convened to elucidate this theory; the proceedings and collected articles were subsequently published in 15 volumes.

Importance

The theory concerning the role of time and place in Ijtihad addresses the impact of temporal and spatial variations on the deduction of legal rulings.[1] This theory falls within the scope of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Attentiveness to these factors in Ijtihad is instrumental in regulating the fixed and variable laws of Sharia,[2] and its acceptance can resolve numerous legal complexities, facilitate improved societal administration, and expand the scope of jurisprudential inquiry.[3]

The articulation of this theory in 1367 Sh by Imam Khomeini, a Marja' and the leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, served as the primary catalyst for the attention jurists and researchers now devote to this subject.[4] Numerous books, articles, and interviews have since been published to explain the mechanisms of this influence.[5] In 1995, a scientific conference was held to explore this topic,[6] and the articles received were published in a 15-volume set titled "Collection of Articles of the Congress for Reviewing the Jurisprudential Principles of Imam Khomeini," comprising 120 articles and 31 interviews.[7]

Impact on Empowering Jurisprudence

It is argued that reliance on this principle highlights the authenticity and potential perfection of Shi'a jurisprudence, demonstrating its capacity to address all arising problems and administer society effectively. It asserts superiority over many statutory laws because jurisprudence can address new and emerging issues (Masa'il al-Mustahdatha) with precision, yielding results that are arguably more robust, just, and equitable. Ultimately, this approach underscores the magnitude of Islam and Shi'a jurisprudence, potentially resolving many contemporary doubts.[8]

Meaning of Time and Place

In this context, "time and place" do not refer to their philosophical concepts, but rather to the historical context of society and the prevailing social, political, and economic conditions. The Mujtahid is required to comprehend these conditions thoroughly and utilize them in the deduction of rulings.[9] Sayyid Kazim al-Ha'iri posits that the discussion encompasses changes occurring within the context of time and place regarding social custom ( 'Urf), jurisprudential subjects, and the expediency and criteria of rulings.[10] According to Sayyid Mahmud Hashemi Shahroudi, the comprehensive expression "role of time and place" alludes to the new economic and social relationships formed in different eras and locations due to shifting circumstances.[11]

Examples of Influence in Jurisprudence

Nasir Makarim Shirazi, a Shi'a jurist, justified his fatwa regarding the slaughter of the Hajj sacrifice in an alternative location on this very basis.[12] He further cites the shift in the status of Chess—from a gambling tool to an intellectual game—as well as issues concerning Autopsy and the rational use of blood as examples of the influence of time and place on jurisprudential understanding.[13] Sayyid Muhammad Musavi Bojnourdi also identifies the payment of Diyah (blood money) by the 'Aqila (paternal male relatives), the testimony of women in court, and the impact of inflation on Riba (usury) as relevant examples.[14] Hossein Mehrpour, a Shi'a jurist, views appellate courts as a clear instance of this influence.[15] Sayyid Muhammad Hasan Mar'ashi includes the judgment of a non-Mujtahid,[16] while Muhammad Ibrahim Jannati cites eighteen jurisprudential titles in an article illustrating the role of time and place in modifying rulings.[17] These examples include the buying and selling of human organs, Organ transplantation, the permissibility of Ghina' (singing), the collection of property exceeding the Jizya from the Ahl al-Dhimma, Population control, the Revival of barren land (Ihya' al-Mawat), and the utilization of Anfal.[18]

History

Imam Khomeini, a Marja' and the leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, explicitly emphasized the role of time and place in Ijtihad across various speeches and messages.[19] While upholding Jawahiri Fiqh, he regarded time and place as two decisive elements in Ijtihad. In a message published in 1988 addressing the clergy, he stated clearly that while a jurisprudential subject may not appear to have changed, a precise understanding of evolving economic, social, and political relationships reveals that the subject has indeed transformed into a new one.[20]

Nasir Makarim Shirazi, a Shi'a Marja', believes that while this theory has precedents in Shi'a jurisprudence, Imam Khomeini established it as a rule and disseminated it throughout the field.[21] He cites two examples from al-Makasib by Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari to demonstrate that time and place have historically influenced the fatwas of jurists.[22] Sayyid Mahmud Hashemi traces the roots of this theory to the works of Na'ini, Muhammad Husayn Kashif al-Ghita, and especially Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, noting that he has written articles specifically on the role of time and place in Ijtihad.[23]

However, Muhammad Javad Arasta, a researcher of political jurisprudence, quotes a phrase from al-Shahid al-Awwal (d. 786/1384), a jurist of the 8th/14th century, to demonstrate that the role of time and place—and the influence of customs and habits on Ijtihad—has a much older lineage.[24]

Scope of Influence of Time and Place

The role of time and place in Ijtihad has been examined from several perspectives. Alireza A'rafi, a Mujtahid and researcher of jurisprudence, has delineated twelve areas in which time and place influence Ijtihad.[25]

Influence on Worship, Transactions, and Implementation of Rulings

Muhammad Hadi Ma'rifat, a Shi'a Mujtahid, asserts that temporal and spatial changes do not affect worship, influencing only the rulings of transactions.[26] However, Makarim Shirazi accepts the intervention of these two elements in matters of worship as well.[27] Abu l-Qasim Gorji, a Mujtahid and university professor, believes the greatest impact is on what he terms "social rulings"—primarily directed at governments—such as those regarding war, peace, health, culture, and education.[28] Hashemi Shahroudi suggests that the most critical points to consider regarding this relationship are the implementation stage of rulings and the context of Islamic governance. He argues that in the administration of a state, the priority of many jurisprudential rulings may shift, and a ruling may even differ from one government to another.[29]

Creating Change in the Subjects of Rulings

Jannati Shahroudi argues that time and place precipitate a transformation in Ijtihad only when they induce a change in the subject itself, or in its external or internal characteristics. According to Jannati, this transformation encompasses all textual (Manṣūṣ) and non-textual religious subjects.[30] Arasta presents a jurisprudential analysis concluding that temporal and spatial changes do not alter the Sharia ruling itself; rather, a new subject emerges that may resemble the old one but requires a distinct ruling.[31] He states that this is precisely what Imam Khomeini intended by the "role of time and place."[32] Hashemi Shahroudi categorizes the influence on changing the subject or the criterion of rulings as only a partial aspect of the broader influence of these elements on Ijtihad.[33]

Hashemi Shahroudi provides a list to clarify these thematic effects, which includes the transformation of subjects of Sharia rulings, the diagnosis and determination of necessities, the prioritization of rulings (al-Ahamm wa ;-Muhimm) and criteria, and the precise determination of the dimensions and scope of rational conducts (sira).[34]

Influence on Jurists' Jurisprudential Understanding

Jannati Shahroudi states that time and place are not classified as Sources of Ijtihad[35] and play no role in altering those sources,[36] nor do they affect the standards and criteria of Ijtihad.[37] Nevertheless, he acknowledges that time and place may occasionally prompt Mujtahids to re-examine their previous interpretations of religious sources.[38] Similarly, Hashemi Shahroudi accepts that these factors influence deduction, pointing to the understanding of the expansion and absoluteness (Iṭlāq) of proof versus its narrowness and restriction (Inṣirāf), the recognition of new implicit implications in verses and narrations, and the distinction between governmental (Wilāyī) and legislative (Tashrīʿī) rulings issued by the Infallibles.[39] He also considers time and place effective in shifting the jurist's worldview.[40]

Muhammad Yazdi, a Shi'a Mujtahid, also emphasizes the change of subject due to time and place but regards the most significant influence of these factors to be on the process of deduction itself and the interpretation of documents and narrations.[41] He considers the identification of priorities (Ahamm wa l-Muhimm) and the conflict of criteria (Ta'arud al-Malakat) as secondary results of this role.[42] Muhammad Mahdi Asifi, another jurist and student of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, believes that while time and place contribute to the evolution of Ijtihad methods, the primary focus of this discussion is their indirect influence.[43] He explicitly notes the impact on the jurist's understanding, citing Khums on spoils of war, Zakat on merchandise, banking, and several other cases as examples.[44]

Notes

  1. ↑ al-Aʿrāfī, Ijtihād wa taqlīd, 1398 Sh, vol. 1, p. 340.
  2. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", p. 239.
  3. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", p. 236.
  4. ↑ al-Aʿrāfī, Ijtihād wa taqlīd, 1398 Sh, vol. 1, p. 340.
  5. ↑ See: Nūrī, Kitāb-shināsī-yi fiqh-i zamān wa makān.
  6. ↑ "Guzārishī az kungira-yi barrasi-yi mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi Imām Khomeinī", p. 174.
  7. ↑ "Majmūʿa maqālāt-i kungira-yi naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", Dānishnāma-yi Fiqh-i Muʿāṣir.
  8. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", p. 234.
  9. ↑ Anṣārī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 276.
  10. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 21.
  11. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", p. 234.
  12. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 15.
  13. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", pp. 11-13.
  14. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", pp. 42-46.
  15. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 50.
  16. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 60.
  17. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", pp. 19-25.
  18. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", pp. 19-25.
  19. ↑ Khomeinī, Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām, 1378 Sh, vol. 5, p. 293; vol. 21, pp. 217, 289.
  20. ↑ Khomeinī, Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām, 1378 Sh, vol. 21, p. 289.
  21. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 13.
  22. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", pp. 10-11.
  23. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", p. 239.
  24. ↑ Arasṭā, "Taʾammulī dīgar dar taʾthīr-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 276.
  25. ↑ al-Aʿrāfī, Ijtihād wa taqlīd, 1398 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 345-363.
  26. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", pp. 23-24.
  27. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", p. 13.
  28. ↑ Jamʿī az Dānishwarān, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar farāyand-i ijtihād", pp. 32-33.
  29. ↑ Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, "Matn-i sukhnān-i dabīr-i kungira", pp. 173-174.
  30. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 18.
  31. ↑ Arasṭā, "Taʾammulī dīgar dar taʾthīr-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 278.
  32. ↑ Arasṭā, "Taʾammulī dīgar dar taʾthīr-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 279.
  33. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", pp. 25-26.
  34. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", pp. 25-26.
  35. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 5.
  36. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 6.
  37. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 6.
  38. ↑ Jannātī, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", p. 18.
  39. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", pp. 25-26.
  40. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", pp. 25-26.
  41. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", p. 29.
  42. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", p. 30.
  43. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", p. 32.
  44. ↑ Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, 1374 Sh, "Fiqh wa zamān", p. 37.

References

  • al-Aʿrāfī, ʿAlī Riḍā, Ijtihād wa taqlīd, vol. 1: Muqaddimāt-i ijtihād, ed. Muḥammad Āzādī, Qom, Muʾassasat Ishrāq wa ʿIrfān, 1398 Sh.
  • Anṣārī, ʿAlī Riḍā, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", Majmūʿa āthār-i kungira-yi barrasi-yi mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi Ḥaḍrat Imām Khomeinī (s) «Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād», vol. 1, 1374 Sh.
  • Arasṭā, Muḥammad Jawād, "Taʾammulī dīgar dar taʾthīr-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", Majmūʿa āthār-i kungira-yi barrasi-yi mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi Ḥaḍrat Imām Khomeinī (s) «Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād», vol. 1, 1374 Sh.
  • "Fiqh wa zamān", Guftugū bā Sayyid Maḥmūd Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Muḥammad Yazdī wa Muḥammad Mahdī Āṣifī, Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt, no. 3, Autumn 1374 Sh.
  • "Guzārishī az kungira-yi barrasi-yi mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi Imām Khomeinī", Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt (a), no. 4, Winter 1374 Sh.
  • Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Sayyid Maḥmūd, "Matn-i sukhnān-i dabīr-i kungira, Āyatullāh Sayyid Maḥmūd Hāshimī", Faṣlnāma-yi Fiqh-i Ahl-i Bayt (a), no. 4, Winter 1374 Sh.
  • Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Sayyid Maḥmūd, "Muṣāḥaba bā faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr", Faṣlnāma-yi Ḥuḍūr, no. 14, Winter 1374 Sh.
  • Jannātī Shāhrūdī, Muḥammad Ibrāhīm, "Naqsh-i zamān wa makān dar ijtihād", Kayhān-i Andīsha, no. 50, Mehr and Aban 1372 Sh.
  • Khomeinī, Sayyid Rūḥullāh, Ṣaḥīfa-yi Imām, Tehran, Muʾassasat Tanẓīm wa Nashr-i Āthār-i Imām Khomeinī, 1378 Sh.
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