Jump to content

Draft:Torture

Add links
From wikishia

Torture involves the deliberate infliction of severe physical or mental pain upon a person, whether accused of a crime or not. In Islamic jurisprudence, torture is considered haram (forbidden), a ruling derived from the broader proofs establishing the prohibition of harassment (ḥurmat al-īdhāʾ). Jurists (fuqahāʾ) classify torture as a particularly egregious form of harassment. However, a minority of jurists, invoking rational principles such as the Rule of the Priority of the More Important over the Important (qāʿidat taqdīm al-ahamm ʿalā l-muhimm), have argued for the limited permissibility of torture under specific circumstances, necessitating the authorization of a fully qualified jurist (faqīh jāmiʿ al-sharāʾiṭ).

Throughout history, torture has been employed for various political and ideological objectives. Notable historical instances include the torture of Asiya wife of Pharaoh and the People of the Ditch (Aṣḥāb al-Ukhdūd) for their faith in God; the persecution of Yasir, Sumayya, and 'Ammar for embracing Islam; and the torture of Maytham al-Tammar and Hujr b. 'Adi for their defense of the Wilaya of Imam Ali (a). During the Abbasid era, torture was used against figures such as Imam Musa al-Kazim (a) by order of Harun al-'Abbasi, and against opponents of the doctrine of the Creation of the Qur'an under al-Wathiq al-'Abbasi. In contemporary history, numerous scholars and clerics in Iran and Iraq were subjected to torture for their opposition to the Pahlavi regime and the Ba'ath Party of Iraq.

Concept

Torture is defined as the infliction of physical pain or mental suffering[1] to extract a confession or obtain a commitment from a person, regardless of their status as accused or non-accused.[2] In his exegesis al-Tibyan, Al-Shaykh al-Tusi characterizes torture as continuous pain and suffering.[3] The Persian term for torture is shikanja, while Arabic equivalents include ʿadhāb and taʿdhīb (punishment or torment).[4] Instances resembling torture are also discussed in jurisprudential texts under the category of Cruelty to animals (ḥaywān-āzārī).[5]

Status and Importance

While torture is not treated as a distinct chapter in classical jurisprudential texts, it is addressed within discussions on the prohibition of annoying and harassing others,[6] Mutilation (muthla),[7] and Qisas (retaliation) involving blunt instruments or actions that inflict torture upon the criminal.[8] References to torture also appear in sections concerning the confession of a thief (sāriq) and the conditions for a valid confessor (muqir)[9] within the chapters on Ḥudūd, Taʿzīrāt, Qisas, and Diyāt. The Four Sources (adilla arbaʿa) of Islamic law confirm the prohibition of harassment, annoyance, and violating human dignity (hatk ḥurmat),[10] with jurists identifying torture as a primary example of such violations.[11]

According to Montazeri in Mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi ḥukūmat-i Islāmī, torturing an accused person to extract critical information (e.g., for the preservation of the Islamic system) falls under the category of Taʿzīr for the omission of a duty (tark wājib).[12][13] Najm al-Din Tabasi (b. 1955) posits that such punishment requires the authorization of a fully qualified jurist.[14] Conversely, 'Allama Tehrani, a student of 'Allama Tabataba'i, argues in Wilāyat-i faqīh dar ḥukūmat-i Islām that the prohibition of torture is absolute, rendering it unlawful under any circumstances.[15]

The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran explicitly prohibits torture in Article 38. Furthermore, Article 578 of the Islamic Penal Code criminalizes the infliction of physical or mental harm to extract confessions, prescribing punishments for offenders.[16]

Reasons and Motivations for Torture

Historically, torture has been utilized as an instrument for achieving ideological, administrative, and political ends.

Torture due to Faith in God

Notable instances of torture inflicted upon believers include:

  1. Asiya wife of Pharaoh.[17]
  2. The torture of Pharaoh's sorcerers[18] and the believers of Banu Isra'il[19] by Pharaoh.[20]
  3. The torture of Jirjis (George) the Prophet (a),[21] a prophet sent between Jesus (a) and the advent of Islam.[22]
  4. The torture of the People of the Ditch (Aṣḥāb al-Ukhdūd),[23] recounted in verses 4–8 of Sura al-Buruj.

Torture for Accepting Islam

Polytheists tortured early Muslims, including Companions and companions of Imam Ali (a), for their acceptance of Islam. Victims included:

  1. Khabbab b. Arat.[24]
  2. Khubayb b. ʿAdi.[25]
  3. ʿAmir b. Fuhayra.[26]
  4. Yasir,[27] his wife Sumayya bt. Khabbat,[28] and their son ʿAmmar.[29]
  5. Bilal al-Habashi[30] and Miqdad.[31]

Torture in the Umayyad Government

During the reign of Mu'awiya b. Abi Sufyan, prominent Shi'as were tortured for political reasons[32] and for their allegiance to the Wilaya of Imam Ali (a).[33] Victims included:

  1. Rushayd al-Hajari.[34]
  2. Maytham al-Tammar.[35]
  3. Hujr b. ʿAdi.[36]
  4. Anas b. Malik.[37]
  5. Sahl b. Saʿd al-Saʿidi.[38]
  6. Jabir b. ʿAbd Allah al-Ansari.[39]
  7. The mental and physical torture of the Captives of Karbala following the Day of Ashura.[40]
  8. Haniʾ b. ʿUrwa.[41]

Torture in the Abbasid Era

  1. The torture and martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim (a) in the dungeons[42] of Harun al-Rashid.[43]
  2. The torture of dissenters regarding the Creation of the Qur'an[44]—such as Ahmad b. Hanbal[45]—by order of al-Wathiq al-'Abbasi.[46]
  3. The torture of Muhammad b. Abi ʿUmayr, a prominent Imami hadith scholar and member of the People of Consensus (Aṣḥāb al-Ijmaʿ).[47]
  4. The torture of Ibn al-Sikkit (186/802–244/858), a literary scholar and companion of Imam al-Hadi (a) and Imam al-Jawad (a), at the hands of al-Mutawakkil al-'Abbasi.[48]

Political Goals

Significant figures subjected to politically motivated torture include:

  1. Sayyid 'Imad al-Din Nasimi Tabrizi, a 7th-century AH Shi'a poet and mystic.[49]
  2. Mir Muhammad Husayn Khatun-abadi, a 12th-century AH jurist.[50]
  3. Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Khwansari, a Shi'a jurist and Marjaʿ.[51]
  4. 'Abd al-Karim ʿUbayd (b. 1957), a Shi'a cleric and senior Hezbollah official.[52]
  5. Nimr Baqir al-Nimr (Sheikh Nimr, d. 2016), a Shi'a cleric from Saudi Arabia executed for his opposition to the Saudi regime.[53]
  6. Sayyid Muhammad Baqir and Bint al-Huda al-Sadr.[54]
  7. Fayd Muhammad Katib Hazara (1279/1862–1349/1931), a Shi'a historian from Afghanistan.[55]
  8. Ibrahim Zakzaky, leader of the Islamic Movement in Nigeria.[56]
  9. Sayyid Mahmud Hashimi Shahrudi.[57]
  10. Arman ʿAliverdi, a Basiji seminary student.[58]

Fight against the Pahlavi Government

Prominent figures tortured for their opposition to the Pahlavi regime include:

  1. Sayyid Mahmud Taleghani.[59]
  2. Sayyid ʿAli Khamenei.[60]
  3. Muhammad Montazeri, son of Husayn ʿAli Montazeri.[61]
  4. Akbar Hashimi Rafsanjani.[62]
  5. Ali Quddusi.[63]
  6. Muhammad ʿAli Raja'i.[64]
  7. Sayyid Muhammad Riza Sa'idi.[65]
  8. ʿAbd al-Rahim Rabbani Shirazi.[66]
  9. Muhammad Riza Mahdavi Kani.[67]
  10. Husayn Ghaffari.[68]
  11. Muhammad Fadil Lankarani.[69]

Notes

  1. ↑ Inṣāfpūr, Kāmil-i farhang-i Fārsī, 1384 SH, p. 638.
  2. ↑ Jaʿfarī Langarūdī, Mabsūṭ dar terminolojī-yi ḥuqūq, 1386 SH, vol. 3, p. 2301.
  3. ↑ Al-Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, vol. 5, p. 185.
  4. ↑ Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, 1371 SH, vol. 1, p. 102.
  5. ↑ Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1410 AH, vol. 7, p. 232; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 36, p. 124.
  6. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 41, p. 49; Muḥsinī, al-Ḥudūd al-sharʿiyya, 1429 AH, vol. 1, p. 325.
  7. ↑ Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, Masālik al-afhām, 1413 AH, vol. 3, p. 26; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 21, p. 77.
  8. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, Muʾassasat Āl al-Bayt (a), vol. 2, p. 254; Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1410 AH, vol. 10, pp. 16, 93, vol. 9, p. 96; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 41, p. 343; Imām Khomeinī, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Dār al-ʿIlm, vol. 2, p. 535; Bahjat, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, 1426 AH, vol. 5, p. 623.
  9. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, 1410 AH, vol. 15, p. 256; Al-Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Durūs al-sharʿiyya, 1417 AH, vol. 3, p. 126.
  10. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 22, p. 74; Khoei, Miṣbāḥ al-faqāha, 1407 AH, vol. 1, p. 33.
  11. ↑ Mūsavī Gulpāygānī, al-Durr al-manḍūd fī aḥkām al-ḥudūd, 1372 SH, vol. 2, p. 379; Khwānsārī, Jāmiʿ al-madārik, 1405 AH, vol. 7, p. 119.
  12. ↑ Montaẓerī, Mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi ḥukūmat-i Islāmī, 1370 SH, vol. 3, p. 575.
  13. ↑ Note: Omitting a duty (tark wājib) has been cited in some contexts as justification for punitive measures resembling torture, such as withholding food and water in cases of Ila' (Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1362 SH, vol. 33, p. 317).
  14. ↑ Ṭabasī, Mawārid al-sajn fī l-nuṣūṣ wa l-fatāwā, 1374 SH, p. 539.
  15. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭehrānī, Wilāyat-i faqīh dar ḥukūmat-i Islām, 1415 AH, vol. 4, pp. 223-225.
  16. ↑ Pazhūheshkade-yi Shūrā-yi Negahbān, Uṣūl-i qānūn-i asāsī dar partow-i Shūrā-yi Negahbān, 1393 SH, p. 3.
  17. ↑ Al-Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, 1372 SH, vol. 10, p. 739; Al-Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, vol. 10, p. 55.
  18. ↑ Al-Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, 1372 SH, vol. 4, p. 714.
  19. ↑ Qurʾān 2:42.
  20. ↑ Qurʾān 26:38-48.
  21. ↑ Al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, Beirut, vol. 2, p. 24; Nuwayrī, Nihāyat al-arab, Dār al-Kutub wa l-Wathāʾiq al-Qawmiyya, vol. 14, p. 259; Jazāʾirī, al-Nūr al-mubīn, 1381 SH, p. 631.
  22. ↑ Jazāʾirī, al-Nūr al-mubīn, 1381 SH, p. 631; Rāwandī, Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ, Āstān Quds Raḍavī, p. 238.
  23. ↑ Nīshābūrī, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 1397 AH, vol. 2, p. 599.
  24. ↑ Al-Ṣadūq, al-Khiṣāl, 1362 SH, vol. 1, p. 312; Al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 176.
  25. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr, Usd al-ghāba, Nashr-i Ismāʿīliyān, vol. 2, p. 104; Wāqidī, al-Maghāzī, al-Aʿlamī, vol. 1, p. 357.
  26. ↑ ʿĀmilī, al-Ṣaḥīḥ min sīrat al-Nabī al-aʿẓam, 1427 AH, vol. 3, p. 210.
  27. ↑ Amīn, Aʿyān al-Shīʿa, 1403 AH, vol. 8, p. 372.
  28. ↑ ʿAsqalānī, al-Iṣāba, 1415 AH, vol. 8, p. 190.
  29. ↑ ʿAllāma Amīnī, al-Ghadīr, 1416 AH, vol. 9, p. 23.
  30. ↑ Al-Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 186.
  31. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr, Usd al-ghāba, 1970, vol. 5, p. 242; Abū Ḥātim al-Rāzī, al-Zīna, Nashr al-Jamal, vol. 1, p. 488.
  32. ↑ For example, see Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, Maktabat Ayatollah al-Marʿashī al-Najafī, vol. 11, p. 45; Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī l-tārīkh, vol. 2, p. 173.
  33. ↑ Zayn, al-Shīʿa fī l-tārīkh, 1357 AH, pp. 132-133.
  34. ↑ Al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, al-Irshād, 1413 AH, vol. 1, p. 325.
  35. ↑ Kashshī, Rijāl al-Kashshī, 1348 SH, p. 87.
  36. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, Dār Ṣādir, vol. 6, p. 218.
  37. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb, 1412 AH, vol. 2, p. 644.
  38. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb, 1412 AH, vol. 2, p. 644.
  39. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb, 1412 AH, vol. 2, p. 644.
  40. ↑ Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, 1404 AH, vol. 15, p. 236; Ibn Aʿtham, Kitāb al-futūḥ, 1411 AH, vol. 5, p. 127; Khwārazmī, Maqtal al-Ḥusayn, 1367 AH, vol. 2, pp. 55-56; Al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, al-Amālī, 1403 AH, p. 321; Qummī, Nafas al-mahmūm, al-Maktabat al-Ḥaydariyya, p. 201; Muqarram, Maqtal al-Ḥusayn (a), Muʾassasat al-Biʿtha, p. 306.
  41. ↑ See Dīnawarī, al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, 1960, pp. 237-238; Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, Dār Ṣādir, vol. 5, p. 122.
  42. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 99, p. 17.
  43. ↑ Al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, al-Irshād, 1413 AH, vol. 2, pp. 237-238; Irbilī, Kashf al-ghumma, 1421 AH, vol. 2, p. 760; Al-Ṣadūq, ʿUyūn akhbār al-Riḍā (a), 1378 AH, vol. 1, p. 101.
  44. ↑ Ibn Khallikān, Wafayāt al-aʿyān, 1364 SH, vol. 1, pp. 397, 447; Ḥusaynī Khātūn-ābādī, Waqāʾiʿ al-sinīn wa l-aʿwām, 1352 SH, p. 171.
  45. ↑ Yaʿqūbī, Tārīkh al-Yaʿqūbī, Beirut, vol. 2, p. 472; Dhahabī, Tārīkh al-Islām, 1413 AH, vol. 15, p. 32; Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Muntaẓam, 1412 AH, vol. 11, p. 43.
  46. ↑ Subḥānī, Buḥūth fī l-milal wa l-niḥal, Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī, vol. 3, p. 614.
  47. ↑ Ṭūsī, Ikhtiyār maʿrifat al-rijāl, 1348 SH, pp. 591-592.
  48. ↑ Majlisī I, Rawḍat al-muttaqīn, 1406 AH, vol. 14, p. 471; Khoei, Muʿjam rijāl al-ḥadīth, 1413 AH, vol. 21, p. 139.
  49. ↑ Fadawī, Bāwān Pūrī, Luristānī, "Tajallī-yi Qurʾān-i Karīm dar shiʿr-i Nasīmī Shīrvānī", p. 56.
  50. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Tatimmat Amal al-āmil, 1407 AH, p. 126; Āghā Buzurg al-Ṭehrānī, Ṭabaqāt aʿlām al-Shīʿa, 1372 SH, vol. 6, p. 198.
  51. ↑ Aydaram, Sayyid Muḥammad Taqī Khwānsārī bar chashmeh-sārān-i ḥuẓūr, 1374 SH, pp. 42-44.
  52. ↑ "Matn-i muṣāḥabe-yi ikhtiṣāṣī-yi Pāsdār-i Islām bā Ḥujjat al-Islām wa l-Muslimīn Shaykh ʿAbd al-Karīm ʿUbayd āzādeh-yi qahramān-i Lubnānī", Hawzah News Agency.
  53. ↑ "Shekastan-i dast wa pāy-i Shaykh Nimr qabl az iʿdām", Shoma News Website.
  54. ↑ "Qatl-i khāhar wa barādar dar rūz-i sevvom-i shekanje", ISNA Website.
  55. ↑ "Zindagīnāma-yi Fayḍ Muḥammad Kātib Hazāra", Asadullah Moradi Website.
  56. ↑ "Aks/ Shaykh Zakzaky zīr-i shekanje-yi artesh-i Nigeria", Mashregh News Website.
  57. ↑ Khaṭīb, Partowī az zindigī-yi Ḥaḍrat Ayatollah al-ʿUẓmā Sayyid Maḥmūd Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, 1432 AH, p. 48.
  58. ↑ For example see "Film-i kāmil wa takān-dahande az ḍarb wa shatm wa shekanje-yi shahīd Ārmān ʿAlīverdī", Harf-e Tazeh Internet Magazine.
  59. ↑ "Murūrī bar naqsh-i Ṭāleghānī dar salb-i mashrūʿiyyat az niẓām-i salṭanatī wa suqūṭ-i Shāh bar asās-i asnād-i SAVAK", Institute for Political Studies and Research Website.
  60. ↑ "Shesh nafar peyāpey Ayatollah Khāmeneʾī rā shekanje kardeh wa har shesh nafar khaste shodand/ Mājarā-yi chāqūʾī ke zindānbān be Rahbar-i Enqelāb dād + Taṣāvīr", Langar News Analytical News Website.
  61. ↑ "Sharḥ-i katbī-yi shahīd Ḥujjat al-Islām Muḥammad Muntaẓerī az shekanje-hā-yi waḥshiyāne-yi SAVAK dar sāl-i 1345", Center for Historical Documents Review Website.
  62. ↑ Hāshimī, Hāshimī Rafsanjānī dawrān-i mobāreze, 1376 SH, vol. 1, p. 205.
  63. ↑ A Group of Researchers, Gulshan-i abrār, 1385 SH, vol. 2, p. 861.
  64. ↑ Rajāʾī, "Zindigī-yi man: Zindigī-yi khūd-nevesht-i shahīd Muḥammad ʿAlī Rajāʾī", p. 73.
  65. ↑ Labbaykī, Tandīs-i istiqāmat, 1382 SH, p. 59; Ranjbar, ʿUrūj az zindān, 1385 SH, pp. 151-155.
  66. ↑ Zindagīnāma-yi Ayatollah Rabbānī Shīrāzī be qalam-i khodash, Faṣlnāme-yi 15 Khordād, 1384 SH, No. 6.
  67. ↑ Zindagīnāma-yi mukhtaṣar-i Ḥaḍrat Ayatollah Muḥammad Riḍā Mahdavī Kanī, Website of the Office for the Preservation and Publication of the Works of Ayatollah Mahdavi Kani.
  68. ↑ Markaz-i Barrasī-yi Asnād-i Tārīkhī-yi Wizārat-i Iṭṭilāʿāt, Yārān-i Imām be revāyat-i asnād-i SAVAK, 1381 SH, p. 207.
  69. ↑ Goftogū bā Ayatollah Ostādī pīrāmūn-i shakhṣiyyat-i Ḥaḍrat Ayatollah Fāḍil Lankarānī, Website of Ayatollah Fadil Lankarani.

References

  • A Group of Researchers of Qom Seminary, Gulshan-i abrār, Tehran, Nashr-i Maʿrūf, 1385 SH.
  • Abū Ḥātim al-Rāzī, Aḥmad b. Ḥamdān, al-Zīna, Beirut, Nashr al-Jamal, n.d.
  • Abū l-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, al-Aghānī, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1415 AH.
  • Abū l-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, Maqātil al-Ṭālibiyyīn, Beirut, Dār al-Maʿrifa, n.d.
  • Abū Makhrama, ʿAbd Allāh Ṭayyib b. ʿAbd Allāh, Qilādat al-naḥr fī wafayāt aʿyān al-dahr, Beirut, Dār al-Minhāj, 1428 AH.
  • Āghā Buzurg al-Ṭehrānī, Muḥammad Muḥsin, Ṭabaqāt aʿlām al-Shīʿa, ed. ʿAlī Naqī Munzavī, Tehran, 1372 SH.
  • Al-Balādhurī, Aḥmad b. Yaḥyā, Ansāb al-ashrāf, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1417 AH.
  • Al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad b. Aḥmad, al-Iʿlām bi-wafayāt al-aʿlām, Beirut, Muʾassasat al-Kutub al-Thaqāfiyya, 1413 AH.
  • Al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad b. Aḥmad, Tārīkh al-Islām wa wafayāt al-mashāhīr wa l-aʿlām, ed. ʿUmar ʿAbd al-Salām Tadmurī, Beirut, Dār al-Kitāb al-ʿArabī, 2nd ed., 1413 AH.
  • Al-Ḥamawī, Muḥammad b. Isḥāq, Anīs al-muʾminīn, Tehran, Bunyād-i Biʿthat, 1363 SH.
  • Al-Irbilī, ʿAlī b. ʿĪsā, Kashf al-ghumma fī maʿrifat al-Aʾimme, ed. Sayyid Hāshim Rasūlī Maḥallātī, Tabriz, Banī Hāshimī, 1381 AH.
  • Al-Jazāʾirī, Sayyid Niʿmat Allāh, al-Nūr al-mubīn fī qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ wa l-mursalīn, Tehran, Farḥān, 1381 SH.
  • Al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Aḥmad b. ʿAlī, Tārīkh Baghdād, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1417 AH.
  • Al-Kulaynī, Muḥammad b. Yaʿqūb, al-Kāfī, Tehran, Dār al-Kutub al-Islāmiyya, 4th ed., 1407 AH.
  • Al-Masʿūdī, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, Murūj al-dhahab wa maʿādin al-jawhar, ed. Asʿad Dāghir, Qom, Dār al-Hijra, 1409 AH.
  • Al-Qurashī, Bāqir Sharīf, Zandagānī-yi Imām Ḥasan ʿAskarī (a), trans. Sayyid Ḥasan Islāmī, Qom, Jāmiʿa-yi Mudarrisīn, 1375 SH.
  • Al-Ṣadūq, Muḥammad b. ʿAlī, al-Khiṣāl, Qom, Jāmiʿa-yi Mudarrisīn, 1362 SH.
  • Al-Ṣadūq, Muḥammad b. ʿAlī, ʿUyūn akhbār al-Riḍā (a), Beirut, Muʾassasat al-Aʿlamī li-l-Maṭbūʿāt, 1404 AH.
  • Al-Ṣafadī, Khalīl b. Aybak, al-Wāfī bi-l-wafayāt, Beirut, Dār al-Nashr Franz Steiner, 2nd ed., 1401 AH.
  • Al-Samarqandī, Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn, Tuḥfat al-ṭālib bi-maʿrifat man yantasib ilā ʿAbd Allāh wa Abī Ṭālib, Medina, Dār al-Mujtabā, 1418 AH.
  • Al-Shahīd al-Awwal, Muḥammad b. Makkī, al-Durūs al-sharʿiyya fī fiqh al-Imāmiyya, Qom, Daftar-i Nashr-i Islāmī, 1417 AH.
  • Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, Zayn al-Dīn b. ʿAlī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya fī sharḥ al-Lumʿat al-Dimashqiyya, Qom, Nashr-i Dāvarī, 1410 AH.
  • Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, Zayn al-Dīn b. ʿAlī, Masālik al-afhām ilā tanqīḥ sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, Qom, Muʾassasat al-Maʿārif al-Islāmiyya, 1413 AH.
  • Al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad, al-Amālī, ed. Ḥusayn Ustādwālī & ʿAlī Akbar Ghaffārī, Qom, Jāmiʿa-yi Mudarrisīn, 1403 AH.
  • Al-Shaykh al-Mufīd, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad, al-Irshād fī maʿrifat ḥujaj Allāh ʿalā l-ʿibād, Qom, Congress of Shaykh Mufīd, 1413 AH.
  • Al-Suyūṭī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr, Tārīkh al-khulafāʾ, Damascus, Dār al-Bashāʾir, 1417 AH.
  • Al-Ṭabarī, Muḥammad b. Jarīr, Dalāʾil al-imāma, Qom, Biʿthat, 1st ed., 1413 AH.
  • Al-Ṭabarī, Muḥammad b. Jarīr, Tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, Beirut, n.p., n.d.
  • Al-Ṭabrisī, Faḍl b. Ḥasan, Iʿlām al-warā bi-aʿlām al-hudā, Qom, Āl al-Bayt (a), 1417 AH.
  • Al-Ṭabrisī, Faḍl b. Ḥasan, Majmaʿ al-bayān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, Tehran, Nāṣir Khusraw, 1372 SH.
  • Al-Ṭūsī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan, al-Ghayba, Qom, Dār al-Maʿārif al-Islāmiyya, 1411 AH.
  • Al-Ṭūsī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan, al-Tibyān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, n.d.
  • Al-Ṭūsī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan, Ikhtiyār maʿrifat al-rijāl, Mashhad, University of Mashhad, 1348 SH.
  • Al-Yaʿqūbī, Aḥmad b. Abī Yaʿqūb, Tārīkh al-Yaʿqūbī, Beirut, Dār Ṣādir, n.d.
  • Al-Zabīdī, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad, Jadhwat al-iqtibās fī nasab Banī l-ʿAbbās, Beirut, al-Dār al-ʿArabiyya li-l-Mawsūʿāt, 1426 AH.
  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām al-sharʿiyya ʿalā madhhab al-Imāmiyya, Mashhad, Muʾassasat Āl al-Bayt (a), n.d.
  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, Qom, Muʾassasat Āl al-Bayt (a), 1410 AH.
  • ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf, Talkhīṣ al-marām fī maʿrifat al-aḥkām, Qom, Intishārāt-i Daftar-i Tablīghāt-i Islāmī, 1421 AH.
  • ʿAllāma Amīnī, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn, al-Ghadīr fī l-kitāb wa l-sunna wa l-adab, Qom, Markaz al-Ghadīr li-l-Dirāsāt al-Islāmiyya, 1416 AH.
  • ʿAllāma Ṭehrānī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn, Wilāyat-i faqīh dar ḥukūmat-i Islām, Tehran, Intishārāt-i Tarjumeh wa Nashr-i Dawra-yi ʿUlūm wa Maʿārif-i Islāmī, 1415 AH.
  • ʿĀmilī, Sayyid Jaʿfar Murtaḍā, al-Ṣaḥīḥ min sīrat al-Nabī al-aʿẓam, al-Markaz al-Islāmī li-l-Dirāsāt, 1427 AH.
  • Amīn, Sayyid Muḥsin, Aʿyān al-Shīʿa, ed. Ḥasan Amīn, Beirut, Dār al-Taʿāruf li-l-Maṭbūʿāt, 1403 AH.
  • ʿAsqalānī, Aḥmad b. ʿAlī, al-Iṣāba fī tamyīz al-ṣaḥāba, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1415 AH.
  • "Ayatollah Ṭāleghānī wa ākharīn zindān", Oral History of Iran Website, Accessed: 30 Mordad 1402 SH.
  • Aydaram, Ḥusayn, Sayyid Muḥammad Taqī Khwānsārī bar chashmeh-sārān-i ḥuẓūr, Qom, Islamic Development Organization, 1374 SH.
  • Baḥrānī, Sayyid Hāshim b. Sulaymān, Madīnat maʿājiz al-Aʾimmat al-ithnā ʿashar wa dalāʾil al-ḥujaj ʿalā l-bashar, Qom, Muʾassasat al-Maʿārif al-Islāmiyya, 1413 AH.
  • Bahjat, Muḥammad Taqī, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, Qom, Office of Ayatollah Bahjat, 1426 AH.
  • Dīnawarī, Aḥmad b. Dāwūd, al-Akhbār al-ṭiwāl, Cairo, ed. ʿAbd al-Munʿim ʿĀmir, 1960.
  • Fadawī, Ṭayyiba et al., "Tajallī-yi Qurʾān-i Karīm dar shiʿr-i Nasīmī Shīrvānī", Nashriyya-yi Pazhūhesh-hā-yi Qurʾānī dar Adabiyyāt, University of Lorestan, No. 2, Autumn and Winter 1393 SH.
  • Fīrūzābādī, Muḥammad b. Yaʿqūb, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, Cairo, n.p., 1371 SH.
  • "Goftogū bā Ayatollah Ostādī pīrāmūn-i shakhṣiyyat-i Ḥaḍrat Ayatollah Fāḍil Lankarānī", Website of Ayatollah Fāḍil Lankarānī, Accessed: 31 Mordad 1402 SH.
  • Ḥasan, Ḥasan Ibrāhīm, Tārīkh-i siyāsī-yi Islām, trans. Abū l-Qāsim Pāyandeh, Tehran, Jāvīdān, 9th ed., 1376 SH.
  • Hāshimī, Muḥsen, Hāshimī Rafsanjānī dawrān-i mobāreze, Tehran, Daftar-i Nashr-i Maʿārif-i Inqilāb, 1376 SH.
  • Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Muḥammad b. Ḥasan, Tatimmat Amal al-āmil, Qom, Ayatollah Marʿashī Najafī Library, 1407 AH.
  • Ḥusayn, Jāsim, Tārīkh-i siyāsī-yi ghaybat-i Imām-i Davāzdahum (aj), trans. Sayyid Muḥammad Taqī Āyatollāhī, Tehran, Amīrkabīr, 3rd ed., 1385 SH.
  • Ḥusaynī Khātūn-ābādī, ʿAbd al-Ḥusayn, Waqāʾiʿ al-sinīn wa l-aʿwām, Tehran, Kitābfurūshī-yi Islāmiyya, 1352 SH.
  • Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Yūsuf b. ʿAbd Allāh, al-Istīʿāb fī maʿrifat al-aṣḥāb, ed. ʿAlī Muḥammad al-Bijāwī, Beirut, Dār al-Jīl, 1412 AH.
  • Ibn Aʿtham al-Kūfī, Aḥmad b. Aʿtham, al-Futūḥ, ed. ʿAlī Shīrī, Beirut, Dār al-Aḍwāʾ, 1411 AH.
  • Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, ʿIzz al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, ed. Muḥammad Abū l-Faḍl Ibrāhīm, Qom, Manshūrāt Kitābkhāne-yi Ayatollah Marʿashī Najafī, 1404 AH.
  • Ibn al-Athīr, ʿAlī b. Muḥammad, al-Kāmil fī l-tārīkh, Beirut, Dār Ṣādir, 1385 AH.
  • Ibn al-Athīr, ʿAlī b. Muḥammad, Usd al-ghāba fī maʿrifat al-ṣaḥāba, Tehran, Nashr-i Ismāʿīliyān, n.d.
  • Ibn al-Jawzī, Abū l-Faraj ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAlī, al-Muntaẓam fī tārīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk, ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā & Muṣṭafā ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1412 AH.
  • Ibn ʿAsākir, ʿAlī b. Ḥasan, Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1415 AH.
  • Ibn Ḥanbal, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad, Faḍāʾil al-ṣaḥāba, ed. Waṣī Allāh Muḥammad ʿAbbās, Beirut, Muʾassasat al-Risāla, 1403 AH.
  • Ibn Kathīr, Ismāʿīl b. ʿUmar, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1407 AH.
  • Ibn Khallikān, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad, Wafayāt al-aʿyān wa anbāʾ abnāʾ al-zamān, Qom, al-Sharīf al-Raḍī, 1364 SH.
  • Ibn Saʿd, Muḥammad b. Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, Beirut, Dār Ṣādir, n.d.
  • Ibn Shaddād, Muḥammad b. ʿAlī, al-Aʿlāq al-khaṭīra fī dhikr umarāʾ al-Shām wa l-Jazīra, Damascus, Institut Francais de Damas, 1953.
  • Ibn Shahrāshūb, Muḥammad b. ʿAlī, Manāqib Āl Abī Ṭālib, Qom, ʿAllāma, 1379 AH.
  • Ibn Shākir al-Kutubī, Muḥammad b. Shākir, Fawāt al-wafayāt wa l-dhayl ʿalayhā, Beirut, Dār Ṣādir, n.d.
  • Ibn Taghrībirdī, Yūsuf, Mawrid al-laṭāfa fī man waliya al-salṭana wa l-khilāfa, Cairo, Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyya, 1977.
  • Imām Khomeinī, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Qom, Dār al-ʿIlm, n.d.
  • Inṣāfpūr, Ghulām-Riḍā, Kāmil-i farhang-i Fārsī, Tehran, Nashr-i Zavār, 1384 SH.
  • Jaʿfarī Langarūdī, Muḥammad Jaʿfar, Mabsūṭ dar terminoloji-yi ḥuqūq, Tehran, Intishārāt-i Kitābkhāne-yi Ganj-i Dānesh, 1386 SH.
  • Khaṭīb, Sayyid Maḥmūd, Partowī az zindigī-yi Ḥaḍrat Ayatollah al-ʿUẓmā Sayyid Maḥmūd Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, n.p., n.p., 1432 AH.
  • Khoei, Sayyid Abū l-Qāsim, Muʿjam rijāl al-ḥadīth, n.p., n.p., 1413 AH.
  • Khwānsārī, Sayyid Aḥmad, Jāmiʿ al-madārik fī sharḥ al-Mukhtaṣar al-nāfiʿ, Tehran, Maktabat al-Ṣadūq, 1405 AH.
  • Khwārazmī, Muwaffaq b. Aḥmad Makkī, Maqtal al-Ḥusayn, ed. Muḥammad Samāvī, Najaf, Maṭbaʿat al-Zahrāʾ, 1367 AH.
  • Labbaykī, Muṣṭafā, Tandīs-i istiqāmat (Special issue for Martyr Ayatollah Muḥammad Riḍā Saʿīdī), Qom, Islamic Research Center of IRIB, 1382 SH.
  • Majlisī I, Muḥammad Taqī, Rawḍat al-muttaqīn fī sharḥ Man lā yaḥḍuruhu l-faqīh, Qom, Muʾassase-yi Farhangī-yi Islāmī-yi Kūshānpūr, 1406 AH.
  • Majlisī, Muḥammad Bāqir, Biḥār al-anwār, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1403 AH.
  • Markaz-i Barrasī-yi Asnād-i Tārīkhī-yi Wizārat-i Iṭṭilāʿāt, Yārān-i Imām be revāyat-i asnād-i SAVAK, Shahīd Ayatollah Ghaffārī, Tehran, Intishārāt-i Wizārat-i Iṭṭilāʿāt, 1381 SH.
  • "Matn-i muṣāḥabe-yi ikhtiṣāṣī-yi Pāsdār-i Islām bā Ḥujjat al-Islām wa l-Muslimīn Shaykh ʿAbd al-Karīm ʿUbayd āzādeh-yi qahramān-i Lubnānī", Hawzah News Agency, Accessed: 31 Mordad 1402 SH.
  • Muḥsinī, Muḥammad Āṣif, al-Ḥudūd al-sharʿiyya, Qom, Būstān-i Kitāb, 1429 AH.
  • Muntaẓir al-Qāʾim, Aṣghar, Tārīkh-i imāmat, Qom, Daftar-i Nashr-i Maʿārif, 1386 SH.
  • Muntaẓerī, Ḥusayn ʿAlī, Mabānī-yi fiqhī-yi ḥukūmat-i Islāmī, trans. Maḥmūd Ṣalavātī, Qom, Farānashr, 1370 SH.
  • Muqarram, ʿAbd al-Razzāq, Maqtal al-Ḥusayn (a), Beirut, Muʾassasat al-Biʿtha, n.d.
  • Mūsavī Gulpāygānī, Sayyid Muḥammad Riḍā, al-Durr al-manḍūd fī aḥkām al-ḥudūd, Qom, Dār al-Qurʾān al-Karīm, 1372 SH.
  • Najafī, Muḥammad Ḥasan, Jawāhir al-kalām fī sharḥ Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1362 SH.
  • Nīshābūrī, Muslim b. Ḥajjāj, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, ed. Muḥammad Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Bāqī, Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArab, 1397 AH.
  • Nuwayrī, Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Nihāyat al-arab fī funūn al-adab, Cairo, Dār al-Kutub wa l-Wathāʾiq al-Qawmiyya, n.d.
  • Pazhūheshkade-yi Shūrā-yi Negahbān, Uṣūl-i qānūn-i asāsī dar partow-i naẓarāt-i Shūrā-yi Negahbān (Article 38), ed. Muḥammad Fatḥī, Tehran, Pazhūheshkade-yi Shūrā-yi Negahbān, 1393 SH.
  • "Peykar-i osarā-yi Īrān dar Arvand/ Javānī ke dākhel-i charkh-i gūsht-i Ṣaddām mīkhandīd/ Gerye-hā-yi mardom-i ʿIrāq barā-yi razmandegān-i Īrān", Institute for Political Studies and Research Website, Date of posting: 30 Tir 1393 SH, Accessed: 9 Shahrivar 1402 SH.
  • Quṭb al-Rāwandī, Saʿīd b. Hibat Allāh, Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ, Mashhad, Āstān Quds Raḍavī, n.d.
  • Qummī, Shaykh ʿAbbās, Nafas al-mahmūm fī muṣībat sayyidinā al-Ḥusayn al-maẓlūm, Qom, al-Maktabat al-Ḥaydariyya, n.d.
  • Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ʿAlī, Darāmadī bi Shīʿa-shināsī, Qom, Markaz-i Jahānī-yi ʿUlūm-i Islāmī, 2nd ed., 1385 SH.
  • Rafīʿī, ʿAlī, Zindagī-yi Aʾimme (a), Tehran, Markaz-i Pazhūheshkade-yi Taḥqīqāt-i Sepāh, n.d.
  • Rajāʾī, Muḥammad ʿAlī, "Rajāʾī dar āʾīne-yi revāyat-i khūd: Kābīne-yi man 36 mīlyūnī ast", Shāhed-i Yārān Magazine, Tehran, No. 10, Shahrivar 1385 SH.
  • Rajāʾī, Muḥammad ʿAlī, "Zindagī-yi man: Zindagī-yi khūd-nevesht-i shahīd Muḥammad ʿAlī Rajāʾī", Roshd-i Moʿallem Magazine, Tehran, No. 258, Shahrivar 1390 SH.
  • Ranjbar, Maqṣūd, ʿUrūj az zindān (Analysis of the life and political thoughts of Ayatollah Saʿīdī), Tehran, Markaz-i Asnād-i Inqilāb-i Islāmī, 1385 SH.
  • Ṣāfī Gulpāygānī, Luṭfullāh, Muntakhab al-athar, Qom, Daftar-i Muʾallif, 1422 AH.
  • Subḥānī, Jaʿfar, Buḥūth fī l-milal wa l-niḥal, Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī, n.d.
  • Ṭabasī, Najm al-Dīn, Mawārid al-sajn fī l-nuṣūṣ wa l-fatāwā, Qom, Maktab al-Iʿlām al-Islāmī, 1374 SH.
  • Taqīzādeh Dāwarī, Maḥmūd, Taṣwīr-i Imāmān-i Shīʿa dar dāʾirat al-maʿārif-i Islām, Qom, Muʾassasat-i Shīʿa-shināsī, 1385 SH.
  • Wāqidī, Muḥammad b. ʿUmar, al-Maghāzī, Beirut, al-Aʿlamī, n.d.
  • Zayn, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, al-Shīʿa fī l-tārīkh, Sidon, al-Sayyid Murtaḍā al-Raḍawī, 1357 AH.
  • "Zindagī-nāme-yi Ayatollah Rabbānī Shīrāzī be qalam-i khodash", Faslname-yi 15 Khordad, 1384 SH, No. 6.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikishia.net/w/index.php?title=Draft:Torture&oldid=205098"