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Tuhma

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Making false accusations (tuhma) (Arabic: التهمة) is attributing false claims to others based on conjecture and suspicion. The source of such accusations is ill-thinking about others' behaviors. Making accusations is prohibited and considered among the major sins. The punishment for the perpetrator is ta'zir (discretionary punishment), and the Quran warns of divine punishment for those who make accusations. The difference between "tuhma",buhtan, and iftira' lies in the level of certainty: the accuser (who makes tuhma) does not have certainty of the fault, whereas those who commit buhtan or iftira' are certain of the falsity of the attributions they make. Islamic narrations have prohibited attending places that arouse suspicion and may lead to accusation. One consequence of making accusations is the loss of faith, and the cure for it is stated to be avoiding prying into others' affairs.

Some scholars, by citing the hadith of Mubahita, have considered making accusations against innovators permissible when there is a reason. However, the majority of jurists consider this interpretation incorrect and define the hadith as "convincing the people of innovation with solid arguments."

Definition and Status

Making false accusations (tuhma) is considered among the major sins.[1] In a hadith, it is considered so abominable and despicable that even Satan distances himself from the one who commits it.[2] In hadith sources, a separate section is dedicated to explaining its prohibition.[3]

Making false accusations (tuhma) refers to expressing a negative conjecture[4] that has arisen in one's heart based on the behavior or actions of another person.[5] However, as long as such assumptions or negative thoughts remain unvoiced, they are considered mere suspicion and not false accusations (tuhma).[6] False accusations (tuhma) also encompasses forms of conveying an attribution through writing, indications, or means like mobile phones, computers, and social networks.[7]

In narrations, the ugliest form of making false accusations (tuhma) is meaning false accusation against a person who has been entrusted with an affair.[8]

Difference with Buhtan and Iftira'

"Tuhma", buhtan, and iftira' have similarities in meaning and are commonly used interchangeably and alongside; however, there are differences between them. Tuhma refers to expressing a bad suspicion that stems from mistrust and a negative assumption.[9] This suspicion either has no basis in reality or has not yet been proven.[10] "Buhtan" refers to false attributions[11] that the attributor has certainty about their falsity. Furthermore, buhtan may be accompanied by evidence presented by the accuser,[12] whereas "iftira'" refers to fabrication of lies[13] without any evidence,[14] such as attributing a child to God.[15]

Ja'far Subhani, a Shi'a marja', believes that tuhma and buhtan are branches of lying, which consists of attributing a false word or an ugly action to a person who is innocent and free from such an action or word, such as attributing indecency to a chaste woman or attributing betrayal to a trustworthy person. Such an act is sometimes called "tuhma" and sometimes called "buhtan".[16]

Religious Rulings about tuhma

Imam al-Sadiq (a):

Whenever a believer makes a false accusation against his [religious] brother, faith disappears from his heart just as salt dissolves in water.[17]

  • "Tuhma" and its spread are forbidden in "fiqh",[18] and its punishment is ta'zir (discretionary punishment).[19] However, if tuhma constitutes qadhf (false accusation of adultery/fornication), its punishment is the hadd of "qadhf"—eighty lashes.[20]
  •  There is no difference, regarding its prohibition, between tuhma being made in the presence of the person or in their absence.[21]
  •  If tuhma is expressed in the presence of the person themselves, it is considered a form of violation of honor and is forbidden.[22]
  •  Listening to tuhma about others is not permissible, and upon hearing it, one must defend the accused and remove the accusation.[23]

Effects and Consequences

Imam Ali (a):

Beware of places of accusation and gatherings that are suspected of wrongdoing, for a bad companion deceives those who sit with him.[25]

  • Tuhma causes the faith of a believer to be destroyed.[29]
  • Tuhma causes the destruction of the sanctity of brotherhood and human relationships among individuals in society and brings about distrust and fear of placing trust.[30]

Ways of prevention and remedy

  • Not associating with evildoers.[31]
  • Not attending gathering of evildoers.[32]
  • Not being present near immoral actions, as well as in the place and locations attributed to evildoers.[33]
  • Not spying on prying into the affairs of others; and interpreting ambiguous words and actions in the best possible way.[34]

Hadith of "Mubahata"

"Mubahita" is a term in fiqh derived from the phrase "bahituhum" in a narration transmitted from the Prophet (s).[35] From a jurisprudential perspective, some have interpreted it to mean false accusation, and based on this interpretation, they have ruled the permissibility of making false accusations against the people of unlawful innovation.[36] However, others have interpreted it to mean strong and overwhelming argumentation,[37] and as a result, they hold the view that making false accusations against the people of unlawful innovation is not permissible.[38]

Notes

  1. ↑ Ibn Shuʿba al-Ḥarrānī, Ṭuḥaf al-ʿuqūl, p. 331; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Ādāb-i muʿāshirat, p. 204; Dastghayb, Gunāhān-i kabīra, vol. 2, p. 386.
  2. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 358.
  3. ↑ See: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 361; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 12, p. 302.
  4. ↑ Ḥusaynī al-Zabīdī, Muḥammad Murtaḍa al. Tāj al-ʿarūs, Under the word "Wahm" (وهم); Farāhīdī, Kitāb al-ʿayn, Under the word "Wahm" (وهم).
  5. ↑ Ibn Fāris, Muʿjam maqāyīs al-luga, vol. 6, p. 146.
  6. ↑ Tihrānī, Akhlaq-i ʾIlāhī, vol. 4, p. 144.
  7. ↑ Sīstānī, Tawḍīh al-masāʾil, vol. 2, p. 208; Attributing false claims to others (Persian)
  8. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 5, p. 298.
  9. ↑ Tihrānī, Akhlaq-i rabbānī, p. 33.
  10. ↑ ʿŪda, Jurm wa arkān-i Ān, vol. 1, p. 300.
  11. ↑ ʿŪda, Jurm wa arkān-i Ān, vol. 1, p. 300.
  12. ↑ See: Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 5, p. 81; Mughnīya, Tafsīr al-kāshif, vol. 2, p. 446; Muṣṭafawī, al-Taḥqīq fī kalimāt al-Qurʾān al-Karīm, vol. 1, p. 338; Qurashī Bunābī, Qāmūs-i Qurān, vol. 1, p. 239.
  13. ↑ Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 6, p. 201.
  14. ↑ Farāhīdī, Kitāb al-ʿayn, Under the word (فری); Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, Under the word (فری).
  15. ↑ Quran 1:116.
  16. ↑ Ṣubḥānī Tabrīzī, al-Mawāhib, p. 639.
  17. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 361.
  18. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 41, p. 59; Shahīd al-Thānī, Rasāʾil al-Shahīd al-Thānī, vol. 1, p. 293; Shahīd al-Thānī, Kashf al-Rayba, p. 21.
  19. ↑ Khomeinī, Istiftāʾāt, vol. 3, p. 452; Fāḍil Lankarānī, Jāmi al-masāʾil, vol. 2, p. 340; Makārim Shīrāzī, Istiftāʾāt-i jadīd, vol. 1, p. 356.
  20. ↑ Ḥillī, Qawāʿid al-aḥkām, vol. 3, p. 547.
  21. ↑ Tihrānī, Akhlaq-i rabbānī, p. 33.
  22. ↑ Tihrānī, Akhlaq-i rabbānī, p. 44.
  23. ↑ Tihrānī, Akhlaq-i rabbānī, p. 33.
  24. ↑ Sīstānī, Tawḍīh al-masāʾil, vol. 2, p. 209.
  25. ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Amālī, p. 7.
  26. ↑ Ṣadūq, ʿIlal al-sharāʾiʿ, vol. 2, p. 480.
  27. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 15, p. 89.
  28. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Amthal, vol. 11, p. 46.
  29. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 361.
  30. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 361.
  31. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 8, p. 152.
  32. ↑ Ṣadūq, al-Amālī, vol. 1, p. 587.
  33. ↑ Majlisī, Ḥilyat al-muttaqīn, vol. 1, p. 555.
  34. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 362; Hamadānī, Miṣbāḥ al-faqīh, vol. 2, p. 672.
  35. ↑ Majlisī, Rawḍat al-muttaqīn, vol. 9, p. 327; Majlisī, Mirʾāt al-ʿuqūl, vol. 11, p. 77.
  36. ↑ Khoeī, Miṣbāḥ al-fiqāha, vol. 1, p. 458; Gulpāyigānī, al-Durr al-manḍūd, vol. 2, p. 148; Tabrīzī, Irshād al-ṭālib, vol. 1, p. 281.
  37. ↑ Fayḍ al-Kāshānī, Kitāb al-Wāfī, vol. 1, p. 245.
  38. ↑ Muḥammadīyān, Taʾammulī dar madlūl-i riwāyat-i musūm bi Mubāhata, p. 159.

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