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Shi'a Beliefs
Theology
Tawhid (Monotheism)Tawhid of Essence • Tawhid in Attributes • Tawhid in Actions • Tawhid in Worship
Other BeliefsTawassul • Shafa'a • Tabarruk
Divine Justice
Bada' • Amr Bayn al-Amrayn
Prophethood
Infallibility • 'Ilm al-ghayb • Mu'jiza • Integrity of the Holy Qur'an
Imamate
Infallibility • Wilaya • 'Ilm al-ghayb • Occultation of Imam al-Mahdi (a) (Minor Occultation,Major Occultation) • Reappearance of Imam al-Mahdi (a) • Raj'a
Resurrection
End Time • Hereafter • Barzakh • Embodiment of Actions •Bodily Resurrection • Al-Sirat • Tatayur al-Kutub • Mizan • Hashr
Other Outstanding Beliefs
Ahl al-Bayt (a) • The Fourteen Infallibles • Taqiyya • Marja'iyya • Tawalli • Tabarri

Theology (khuda-shinasi) refers to the knowledge and identification of God as the Creator of the universe, encompassing three main areas: proving His existence, His attributes, and Divine Acts. Muslim theologians, citing the necessity of avoiding potential harm and thanking the Benefactor, consider theology an essential obligation.

According to most Muslim philosophers and Imami theologians, knowing the Divine Essence is impossible; however, many of them believe that human reason is capable of understanding Divine attributes and acts. Some theologians also limit the knowledge of God to the apophatic (negative) method.

There are various ways to attain knowledge of God, including Quranic, theological, rational, and mystical methods. Philosophers emphasize rational proofs for the existence of God, while mystics emphasize inward intuition. Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi considers the best way to know God to be through the Qur'an.

Numerous names are mentioned for God; 132 names are cited in the Qur'an, and 99 names in some traditions. It is said that any concept that denotes perfection and does not imply deficiency or limitation can be applied to God (affirmative attributes). Conversely, any concept that denotes deficiency or limitation is negated from God (negative attributes). Tawhid (monotheism), meaning the belief in the oneness of God, is among the most important topics in theology, considered the most fundamental Islamic teaching and the primary goal of religion and the Qur'an.

The approaches of Islamic sects to theology are reported to be diverse: Shi'a Islam follows a moderate path between Rationalism and Traditionalism. In Shi'a theology, there is neither a trace of anthropomorphism (tashbih) nor suspension (ta'til). The Mu'tazila are rationalists, while the Ash'arites, People of Hadith, and Salafiyya, denying the possibility of rational knowledge of God, limit themselves to the literal meanings of religious texts. The God of the Salafiyya has been described as having a face, hands, feet, ears, and eyes, and being spatially located. Salafiyya theology was revived and promoted by Wahhabism in the 12th century AH.

It is noted that although the denial of God has existed in all periods, it has always been in the minority, and in no period within the Islamic World has a prominent figure denied God.

Basis and Foundation of Religion

Theology is considered the basis and foundation of religion and its other pillars; Religion without theology is meaningless and loses its structure.[1] The core and basis of the invitation of the Prophets has also been identified as the knowledge of God.[2]

According to traditions, theology is introduced as the foremost and most superior of all knowledge. For instance, in a narration, the Prophet of Islam (s) stated that the pinnacle of science and knowledge is knowing God.[3] Imam Ali (a) also counted theology as the beginning and basis of religion[4] and the most superior of knowledge.[5] It is narrated from Imam al-Sadiq (a) that knowing God and acknowledging servitude to Him is the most superior obligation upon man.[6] In a tradition, the purpose of creating servants is stated to be the knowledge of God so that servants, after knowing God, worship Him.[7] In another tradition, it is stated that whoever does not know God will be led astray in the worship of God.[8]

Al-'Allama al-Hilli, a Shi'a theologian in the 8th century AH, considered God the most noble of beings and the science of Him the most superior science.[9]

Necessity of Theology

Muslim theologians consider knowing God obligatory by the decree of reason.[10]Template:Note The obligation of theology has been described as a matter of consensus among Muslim scholars.[11] Theologians have cited the following reasons for proving the necessity and obligation of theology:

  • The necessity of preventing potential harm: Throughout history, numerous Prophets have spoken of the existence of God and invited mankind to faith in God. If their speech and behavior do not yield certainty about the existence of God, at the very least, the probability of His existence is strengthened. If such a probability is correct, ignoring it would result in a great loss. By the decree of reason and to prevent that great loss, one must investigate and research about God.[12]
  • The necessity of thanking the Mun'im (Benefactor): Thanking someone who bestows a blessing is obligatory due to the granting of their blessings. To thank and appreciate the Benefactor, one must know Him; for without knowing Him, thanking Him is impossible. Thus, knowing the Benefactor (God) is essential.[14]
  • Innate tendency toward knowing God: Theology and the tendency to discuss and debate about God have been counted among the innate matters of human beings.[15]

Functions of Theology and Belief in God

Among the functions and benefits of theology and belief in God are psychological peace,[16] providing identity and meaning to man and his life,[17] showing the correct path of life to reach happiness,[18] a positive attitude toward existence and life, providing a theoretical backbone for spiritual knowledge and tendencies, strengthening ethics and the purification of the soul,[19] backing ethical virtues, providing an executive guarantee for the observance of law, justice, and individual rights,[20] and adherence to religious commands.[21]

In a narration from Imam al-Sadiq (a), it is stated that if people knew the value of knowing God, they would not look at the pleasures and benefits of the world, and the world would become more worthless to them than the dust under their feet; like someone who is in perpetual pleasure in the gardens of Paradise, they enjoy the blessing of knowing God. The narration continues that theology is the companion of every terrorized one, the associate of every lonely one, the light of every darkness, the power of every weakling, and the healer of every illness.[22]

Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, a Shi'a philosopher of the 14th solar century, believes that the true evolution of man is impossible without knowing God; because the perfection of man is realized through Divine proximity, and proximity to God will not be possible without knowing God.[23]

Terminology

Theology, which is the equivalent of Theology,[24] encompasses the knowledge of God as the Creator of the world in three main areas: proving the existence of God, knowing His names and attributes, and understanding His acts toward the world and man.[25] The Ahl al-Bayt (a) determined the boundaries of this knowledge by mentioning Divine attributes; for example, the Holy Prophet (s) considered the most worthy knowledge to be God's oneness, His being unparalleled, and His not having a separate manifest and hidden aspect.[26] Imam al-Sajjad (a) emphasized knowing attributes such as unity, compassion, power, knowledge, and the impenetrability of sight upon Him.[27] Imam al-Sadiq (a) counted the limit of knowledge as knowing attributes such as being eternal, unparalleled, and being All-Hearing and All-Seeing.[28] In the view of Imam al-Baqir (a), knowledge includes the confirmation of God and His Messenger, as well as allegiance with Imam Ali (a) and the Imams (a) after them.[29]

Nasir Makarim Shirazi differentiated between theology (khuda-shinasi), God-seeking (khuda-ju'i), and God-finding (khuda-yabi), relating theology to the discussions of Divine attributes, God-seeking to the motivations for knowing God, and God-finding to the issue of proving the existence of God.[30] According to some theological researchers, the various ranks and levels of theology are: knowing the Essence of God, knowing that God exists, and knowing the attributes and acts of God.[31] It is noted that the greatest disagreement among theologians regarding the knowledge of God is the disagreement over Divine attributes.[32]

The Concept of God

The Persian word "Khuda" is considered equivalent to the Arabic "Allah",[33] which in the singular form is applied exclusively to the Essence of the Lord; however, in combination with other words, it has found a broader application and is used for things other than God (such as kad-khuda).[34] In contrast, "Allah" is a proper name and comprehensive of all Divine perfection attributes.[35]

According to some researchers, the concept that the general public understands of "God" is the Creator of the world; however, philosophers have chosen the concept of the Necessary Being (Wajib al-Wujud) for greater precision, as this concept refers to the necessity of the essence and avoids mere abstraction from Divine acts.[36] The etymological root of "Khuda" means owner, possessor, and the elder of the house.[37] Others have considered it a shortened form of "Khud-ā" (Self-Coming) or "Khud-āyandih," meaning a being that has come by itself.[38]


Ways and Types of Theology

Theology is divided into two main categories based on the method of acquiring knowledge:[39]

  1. Acquired Theology (khuda-shinasi-yi husuli): Knowledge obtained through the mediation of mental concepts. This type of knowledge is attained through rational arguments[40] or using Quranic expressions.[41]
  2. Knowledge by Presence (khuda-shinasi-yi huduri): Direct knowledge without the need for the mediation of mental concepts. The verses of fitra, covenant, and verses that indicate heart-based vision of God represent this type of knowledge in the Qur'an.[42]

Also, the ways of acquiring Divine knowledge have been categorized into three methods:[43]

  • The Way of Reason (Rational Theology): Using the tools of reason and demonstrative proofs.
  • The Way of the Heart (Intuitive and Visionary): Finding God through one's inner self; including innate and mystical theology.
  • The Way of Experience: Knowing God through the observation of the natural world and its phenomena.[44]

In addition, theology among Muslims is sometimes divided into three theological, philosophical, and mystical approaches.[45]

Innate Theology

One of the ways of theology is stated to be innate theology or knowing God through fitra (nature).[46] Innate theology means that man, based on his type of creation and spiritual structure, knows God and does not need to acquire preliminary sciences and arguments to know God.[47] Theology, God-seeking, God-desiring, and God-worship have been counted as innate human matters.[48] Verses such as Qur'an 30:30, known as the Ayah of Fitra, indicate innate theology.[49]

Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi divided innate theology into acquired innate theology and innate theology by presence. The meaning of acquired innate theology is that man realizes the existence of God and knows Him through his innate and God-given reason. Innate theology by presence is that man is created in such a way that in the depths of his heart, he has a deep relationship with God, and when he pays attention to the depth of his heart, he will find that relationship and witness God.[50]

Quranic Theology

Main article: Quranic Theology

According to Misbah Yazdi, the best way to know God is to refer to the Qur'an and know Him through the teachings of the Qur'an.[51] The specific name of God in the Qur'an is Allah.[52] It is said that in Quranic theology, the existence of God is taken for granted and the proof of His existence is not discussed; in the Qur'an, various acts of God are emphasized, God is not described, and His attributes are not spoken of.[53] More than three-quarters of the Qur'an is about the acts of God; what God has done and is doing or what He has said and will say. The Divine names mentioned in the Qur'an also refer to God's acts, not His attributes.[54] Some researchers believe that the Qur'an emphasizes Tawhid and the superiority of God over other beings more.[55] According to Morteza Motahhari, the Qur'an introduced studying creation and creatures as one of the ways of knowing God and placed it as a confirmation for the way of nature and the heart.[56] The various attributes of God in the Qur'an have been categorized under the three attributes of power, knowledge, and being pure good.[57]

Theological Theology

Main article: Theological Theology

Some Muslim theologians considered God and His attributes the subject and core of theology (Kalam) and defined theology as the science that discusses the Divine Essence and attributes.[58] The topics raised in Islamic theology about God are categorized into three groups: proving the existence of God, the oneness of God, and the attributes of God. Topics such as vision of God, the creation of the Qur'an, determinism and freewill, the Problem of Evil, and Divine Grace are discussed under the attributes of God.[59]

According to Muhammad Mujtahid Shabistari, a theological researcher and religious intellectual, Muslim theologians did not follow the method of the Qur'an in their theological discussions; although they spoke about the same topics mentioned in the Qur'an.[60] According to Shabistari, the theologians did not intend to explain the God of the Qur'an; rather, due to being influenced by the philosophical-religious thoughts of their time, they intended to respond to the doubts and questions raised about God by followers of other religions or philosophers.[61] In Islamic theology, the existence of God was proven, and instead of discussing God's acts, God's Essence and attributes were spoken of.[62] Theologians used expressions about God that do not appear in the Qur'an.[63]

Philosophical Theology

Main article: Philosophical Theology

God has always been one of the most important concepts in the history of philosophy,[64] and theology has occupied a significant part of the discussions of Muslim philosophers.[65] In philosophical theology, in addition to proving the existence of God with philosophical and rational reasons, the attributes of God and other issues related to God are also proven with reason.[66] The core of theology in Islamic Philosophy is the concept of the Necessary Being,[67] and Muslim philosophers use the title Necessary Being instead of the word Khuda or Allah.[68]Template:Note

Morteza Motahhari considered theology through reason and philosophy to be one of the most difficult and complete ways of theology[69] and believed that theology and its surrounding issues only through reason and philosophy can, as an efficient science, answer all the issues needed by mankind about God.[70] Some also believe that theology and the discussion of God is essentially a philosophical issue and discussion.[71]

It is said that in the tradition of Islamic philosophy, Ya'qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi, one of the Muslim philosophers of the 3rd century AH, defined philosophy for the first time as the science of the First Cause (God) and placed other philosophical discussions under the knowledge of God.[72] Ibn Sina also considered the goal of philosophy to be knowing God.[73] Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, a Shi'a philosopher of the 14th solar century, considers theology the most valuable and superior of philosophical sciences.[74] In Islamic philosophy books, a part is dedicated to theology called "al-Ilahiyyat bi-l-ma'na al-akhas" (Theology in the specific sense).[75]

Mystical Theology

Main article: Mystical Theology

God is a central concept in religious mysticism, to the extent that it is said that mysticism in Abrahamic religions is nothing but the effort to know God and reach Him.[76] Mystical theology has been considered based on the theory of the Individual Unity of Existence.[77] This theory is the main feature of mystical theology.[78] According to this theory, an infinite existence has filled all existence and reality at all levels and ranks, leaving no room for another. That infinite existence is God.[79] Mystical theology is contingent upon the purification of the heart and vision and intuition, and the mystic does not deal with reason, argument, and thinking in knowing God.[80] Thus, mystical theology is counted as personal (private), which is not transferable and teachable to others.[81] In the view of the people of mysticism, God is beyond human thought and reason, and the theological and philosophical knowledge of God is a superficial knowledge and of a lower rank than mystical knowledge.[82]

Some critics of philosophy and mysticism have perceived philosophical and mystical theology as opposing religious and revelatory theology, and the God of philosophy and mysticism as different from the God of religion.[83] Gholamreza Fayyazi, a professor of Islamic philosophy in Qom, considered this statement groundless and believes that the God of philosophy and the philosopher is the same God that Islam, the Qur'an, and traditions refer to as Allah. The philosopher seeks to know the God of the Qur'an and traditions.[84] Abd al-Rasul Ubudiyyat, a professor of Islamic philosophy in Qom, believes that given the features mentioned for God in religious and philosophical texts, the God of philosophy is exactly the God of religion (Allah).[85]

Is It Possible to Know God?

It is stated that most Muslim philosophers and Imami theologians,Template:Note have considered knowing the Essence and reality of God impossible.[86] In numerous traditions, the impossibility of knowing the Essence of God is also emphasized.[87] The reason for the impossibility of knowing the Divine Essence is that the Essence of God is infinite and has no concept, like, or counterpart.[88] On the other hand, knowledge requires a type of scientific encompassment over the known. Since a limited being (man) cannot encompass an unlimited being (God), knowing the Divine Essence is impossible.[89] Nevertheless, most Muslim philosophers and theologians believe that human reason is capable of knowing Divine names, attributes, and acts;[90] although supporters of the theory of suspension (ta'til) believe that human reason has no way to know God and Divine attributes and acts. Thus, one must confess to and have faith in the attributes mentioned in the Qur'an and traditions without knowing their true meaning.[91] Some theologians also advocate Apophatic Theology and believe that one can only speak about God and His attributes in a negative manner; because God is not like any creature.[92] The majority of the Mu'tazila,[93] Mulla Rajab Ali Tabrizi and his student Qadi Sa'id Qummi, Shi'a mystics of the 12th century AH, are counted among the supporters of apophatic theology.[94]

According to Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, the existence of a large number of Quranic verses about God's attributes and the Qur'an's encouragement to reflect and ponder upon the verses of the Qur'an leaves no doubt that man must have the ability to understand and comprehend Divine attributes; otherwise, numerous verses of the Qur'an would be futile.[95]

Regarding the possibility of knowing God through reason, two general views are raised: rationalists such as Muslim philosophers and Imami and Mu'tazila theologians consider knowing God possible, while literalists such as the Hanbalis and People of Hadith and Shi'a Akhbaris such as Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi, and empiricists such as Iqbal Lahori and Mehdi Bazargan consider human reason incapable of knowing God.[96] Various criticisms have been raised against the second view, stating that knowing God is possible and man can know God with reason and rational thinking; although man's knowledge of God is limited and knowing the reality of God is beyond the power of human reason.[97] Muslim mystics also sometimes opposed the rational knowledge of God and sometimes belittled it.[98]

Proving the Existence of God

Main articles: Existence of God and Arguments for the Existence of God

Regarding whether an argument for proving God is mentioned in the Qur'an or not, there is disagreement. In the view of al-'Allama al-Tabataba'i, the Qur'an considers the original existence of God self-evident and taken for granted and does not see a need for proof and argumentation to accept His existence. He believes that in the Qur'an, wherever God is spoken of, it is about His attributes such as Tawhid, not proving His existence.[99] Nasir Makarim Shirazi, a commentator on the Qur'an, also believes that based on Quranic verses, the primary mission of the Prophets was to erase the effects of polytheism and idolatry, not to prove the existence of God; because the existence of God is innate in every person;[100] however, according to Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, many commentators have considered numerous verses as directed toward proving the existence of God and have turned their content into arguments, most of which return to the argument from design.[101] In the view of Misbah Yazdi, although the Qur'an considers the existence of God as not needing argument and has not set out to prove His existence, one can derive arguments for proving God from Quranic verses.[102]

Regarding the provability or unprovability of the existence of God, various views have been provided. Some consider the existence of God entirely provable and proven. A group such as mystics negate the provability of God's existence through reason and believe that God must be known through the heart and intuition, not through reason. Atheists also consider existence rationally unprovable.[103]

Some philosophers have considered the existence of God self-evident and not needing proof.[104] For instance, al-'Allama al-Tabataba'i, by considering the existence of God self-evident, considers the proofs for existence as attention and reminder to that self-evident matter.[105] The verse "Is there any doubt about Allah, the originator of the heavens and the earth?"[106] is considered an indication of God's self-evidence.[107] In the view of Misbah Yazdi, all Muslim philosophers and theologians believe that acquired knowledge of God through rational and philosophical argument is possible and have provided numerous arguments for it.[108] Some of the proofs for the existence of God that have received attention in the tradition of Islamic theology and philosophy are: the argument from contingency and necessity, the argument of the righteous, the argument from design, the argument from causality, the argument from miracle, the argument from creation in time, the argument from motion, and the argument from the cancellation of determinations.[109] Ibn Sina considered the argument from contingency and necessity[110] and Mulla Sadra considered the Burhan al-Siddiqin[111] to be the best and most reliable arguments.

Names of God

Main article: Asma and Attributes of God

The names of God in the Qur'an are counted as 132.[112] In some traditions, the names of God are mentioned as 99.[113] In Jawshan al-Kabir Supplication, one thousand names are mentioned for God.[114] The most common names for God in the Qur'an are said to be Allah, Ilah, and Lord.[115]

According to Ali Akbar Dehkhoda in Loghatnāmih-yi Dehkhodā, in Persian religious literature, numerous words and names are used for God, some of which are: Afridigar, Afrinandih, Bar-ilah, Bar-parwardigar, Bari Ta'ala, Bari, Ilah, Allah, Jahan-ara, Jahan-afarin, Parwardigar, Jahan-dawar, Hadrat-i Ahadiyyat, Pak-dad, Jan-afarin, Hadrat-i Kibriya'i, Hadrat-i Izzat, Charih-saz, Jahan-ban, Izad-i Muta'al, Giti-aray, Yazdan, Dad-afrid, Dad-awar, Dadgar, Dadar, Dawar, Sabab-saz.[116]

According to Ja'far Subhani, a Shi'a theologian, many Muslim theologians and commentators consider the names of God to be tawqifi; meaning they believe man is not permitted to attribute to Him any name or attribute other than those mentioned in the Qur'an and traditions.[117]

Respecting the Divine names is considered obligatory and touching the names of God without ritual purity is considered haram.[118]

Attributes and Acts of God

Main articles: Essential Attributes of God, Active Attributes of God, Affirmative Attributes of God, and Attributes of Majesty and Beauty of God

It is stated that given the infinite perfections of God, any concept that denotes perfection and does not imply deficiency or limitation can be applied and attributed to God.[119] Conversely, any concept that denotes deficiency or limitation is negated from God.[120] The attributes of God are mentioned in various categorizations from different perspectives. Among the common categorizations are:

  • Affirmative and Negative Attributes: Affirmative attributes refer to attributes that affirm a perfection among perfections for God. In contrast, negative attributes are those that signify the negation and removal of deficiency and limitation from the Divine Essence.[121] Affirmative attributes are also called attributes of beauty (jamaliyya) and negative attributes are called attributes of majesty (jalaliyya).[122] According to Ja'far Subhani, Muslim theologians have limited the affirmative or beauty attributes to eight: life, knowledge, power, hearing, vision, will, speech, and self-sufficiency (ghina). Negative attributes are also limited to seven: negation of corporeality, negation of being a substance, negation of being an accident, not being seen, not being spatially located, not residing in another, and not being unified with anything.[123]
  • Essential and Active Attributes: Essential attributes are attributes in which the conception of the essence is sufficient to describe the Divine Essence with them.[124] These attributes are abstracted from the Divine Essence. Life, knowledge, and power are counted as the most important essential attributes.[125] Attributes abstracted from a type of relationship between God and His creatures are called active attributes; such as being a Creator, being a Provider, Lordship, and Divinity.[126]

In Misbah Yazdi's view, all of God's acts such as the creation of the world and man, provision, and guidance are summarized in creation and management, and these two are the most general concepts that apply to Divine acts.[127] Based on Tawhid in creation, God created all beings in the world, and by virtue of Tawhid in Lordship, God is the manager of the world and all beings.[128] The Ash'arites consider God the creator of all human acts; however, the Mu'tazila believe God has left human acts to them, and man is the creator of his acts.[129] Shi'as and philosophers believe that man is the agent of his actions but is not independent.[130]

Oneness and Uniqueness of God

Main article: Tawhid

Tawhid, meaning the belief in the oneness of God,[131] is considered the most fundamental Islamic teaching and the root of all Islamic knowledge,[132] and the common goal of all the Prophets.[133] Proving Tawhid has also been counted as the goal of religion[134] and the main goal of the Qur'an.[135] al-'Allama al-Tabataba'i believes that from the Quranic perspective, religion and all religious knowledge are founded upon Tawhid. Tawhid is the principle and other religious knowledge are its branches and foliage.[136]


Tawhid is spoken of in numerous verses of the Qur'an with various expressions,[137] including: "La ilaha illa Allah" (There is no god but Allah),[138] "La ilaha illa Huwa" (There is no god but Him),[139] "Ilahukum ilahun wahid" (Your God is one God),[140] "Ma min ilahin illa Allah" (There is no god but Allah),[141] and "Qul Huwallahu Ahad" (Say: He is Allah, the One).[142]

Various ranks and types have been stated for Tawhid, some of which are: Tawhid in Essence, Tawhid in Attributes, Tawhid in Acts (Tawhid in Creator-ship, Tawhid in Lordship), and Tawhid in Worship.[143] Some Muslim thinkers have divided Tawhid into two sections: theoretical (related to the world of knowledge) and practical (related to the sphere of action).[144]

Unlike monotheists, dualists (thanawiyyun) consider the world as having two origins and two gods: the god of good (Yazdan) and the god of evil (Ahriman).[145] According to Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, they believe, based on the principle of homogeneity and compatibility between cause and effect, that there are contradictory beings in the world such as light and darkness and good and evil. Thus, the creator of each must be compatible with them. Therefore, the world has two gods of good and evil.[146]

Comparative Theology of Islamic Sects

The theology of Islamic theological sects is reported to be different according to their theological method. The method of the Shi'a in theology is said to be a middle and moderate method; meaning explanation and reasoning based on reason and revelation alongside each other. They, despite accepting the originality and validity of reason, also accept its limitations.[147] Thus, it is said that in Shi'a theology there is neither a trace of anthropomorphism (tashbih) nor suspension (ta'til).[148] This very feature is identified as the Shi'a's advantage over other sects.[149] Imami Shi'as consider God one and unparalleled and do not believe in any kind of composition or plurality in His Essence. Thus, they believe in all ranks of Tawhid.[150] Shi'a Tawhid in attributes is counted as different from the Mu'tazila's; because the Mu'tazila consider God's Essence devoid of any attribute; unlike the Shi'a who believe in the identity of attributes with the Divine Essence. Shi'a Tawhid in acts is also considered different from the Ash'arite Tawhid in acts; because based on the Ash'arite Tawhid in acts, all human acts are directly from God and the world's beings are not creators of their acts; however, according to Shi'a Tawhid in acts, human voluntary acts are in the longitudinal path of God's act and are attributed to both God and man.[151]

The People of Hadith, who oppose rational argument and are literalist and traditionalist, believe that in theological discussion, one must have faith in whatever appears in the Qur'an and traditions without interpretation and explanation, including God's established presence on the Throne.[152] The People of Hadith, although not considering God corporeal and spatially located, consider Him visible on the Day of Resurrection.[153] Some theological sects of the Sunni community such as the Mujassima and Karramiyya described God as corporeal and spatially located and believe that seeing God in this world and the Afterlife is possible.[154]

Mu'tazilite theologians with a rationalist method[155] did not consider God a body or an accident; rather, they described Him as the Creator of substances and accidents who cannot be perceived with any of the outward senses, has no place, and is not visible in this world and the afterlife. They deny the eternity of essential attributes and also the attributes being addition to the essence.[156] Tawhid in attributes is counted as the characteristic of the Mu'tazila school.[157]

The Ash'arites also do not consider God corporeal and spatially located; however, they believe God is seen with the eyes of the head in the Afterlife.[158] In the view of Ash'arite theologians, the Essence of God has attributes such as established presence on the Throne, and having hands, a face, and eyes; but the quality of these attributes is not clear to us and Divine attributes are essentially different from human attributes.[159] They consider essential attributes eternal like God's Essence. Thus, they believe in eight eternal things.[160] The characteristic of the Ash'arite school is identified as Tawhid in acts.[161]

The Salafiyya consider rational knowledge of God and His attributes impossible and limit themselves to the literal meaning of the Qur'an and Sunna and the opinions of the predecessors for knowing God.[162] The followers of the Salafiyya believe that knowing God is not possible in this world; however, in the afterlife, God can be known by His Essence; because God is visible in the afterlife.[163] Nevertheless, they consider proving God possible and engage in its proof through ways such as reflecting on creatures and arguments such as nature and the argument from creation in time.[164] The God of the Salafiyya is described as having a face, hands, feet, ears, and eyes, and being spatially located; their God is in the heaven.[165] Salafiyya beliefs were revived and promoted in the 12th century AH by Wahhabism.[166] Wahhabis emphasize Tawhid in Worship more in theological discussions and, with a specific interpretation of it, declare takfir against followers of other sects.[167]

Denial of God

Main article: Atheism

Materialists who consider existence equal to matter deny the existence of God as a non-material and supernatural being.[168] This claim is counted as excessive and groundless, and it is said that sensory and material experience cannot prove or negate anything beyond its own realm (i.e., beyond nature).[169] Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi considers the proofs for existence sufficient for the invalidity of equating existence with matter.[170] Also, given the essential possibility of God's existence, it is said that the denier of God must reject all proofs for God and then provide reasons for denying Him.[171]

In the view of Morteza Motahhari, the thought of materialism and denial of God has existed in all periods and also existed before Islam in the period of ignorance. From the 2nd century AH, materialists freely expressed and promoted their thoughts and even engaged in dialogue and debate in al-Masjid al-Haram and al-Masjid al-Nabawi. Nevertheless, in no period within the Islamic World has a prominent figure denied God and been a supporter of materialism. In his belief, in the twentieth century, with the translation of books by materialists, this thought gained a new life in the Islamic world and gained followers; but soon its groundlessness appeared, and it was known that the deniers of God in the Islamic world have no answer to the believers in God except repeating the same old points.[172] According to Motahhari[173] and Ja'far Subhani,[174] materialism became popular in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries CE following the scientific Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment; but it declined in the twentieth century. Denial of God has been counted as a belief always in the minority and belief in God as a common thought among various ethnic groups and nations.[175]

Matters such as the inadequacy of church concepts about God and its violence toward scientists,[176] the inadequacy of Western philosophical concepts about God,[177] the inadequacy of some social and political concepts,[178] the expression of opinions by non-specialists about God,[179] the incorrect introduction of God,[180] asceticism and untruthful teachings of some religious preachers,[181] Theory of Evolution,[182] the substitution of empiricism for rationalism,[183] and the inappropriateness of the social and moral environment[184] are mentioned among the causes and factors for the tendency toward materialism and denial of God.

In the early Islamic period, deniers of God were called Dahri, Zindiq, or Mulhid;[185] just as Ilhad and Atheism are also used in new theological discussions for disbelief in God.[186]


Bibliography

Numerous books have been written and published surrounding theology, some of which are:

  • Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū (The Way of Knowing God and Knowing His Attributes) written by Ja'far Subhani. This book set out to explain the fundamental principles of theology in a scientific and logical manner and was written with the goal of correctly and up-to-date presenting religious beliefs and was published by Maktab Islam Publishing.[187]
  • Khidā-shināsī (Collection of educational books on Quranic knowledge), Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, this book, which is the transcribed lessons of Misbah Yazdi, is the first volume of the collection of Quranic knowledge which discusses knowing God, Tawhid, and His attributes and acts.[188] This book was first published in 2010 by Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute.

Khidā-shināsī by Abd al-Rasul Ubudiyyat and Mujtaba Misbah, Dar-āmadī bar khidā-shināsī-yi falsafī by Mohsen Javadi, Khidā-shināsī (pāsukh bih shubihāt-i kalāmī) by Muhammad Hasan Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar ḥikmat wa sharīʿat by Muhammad Hasan Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar andīshih-yi insān five transcribed lectures of Morteza Motahhari, Khidā dar andīshih-yi bashar by Abd Allah Nasri and Falsafih-yi ilāhiyyāt bi-l-maʿnā al-akhaṣ; dar-āmadī bar khidā-shināsī-yi falsafī by Mahdi Abd Allahi are other books published about theology.

Notes

  1. ↑ Subḥānī and Birinjkār, Maʿārif wa ʿaqāʾid 3, 1395 SH, p. 84.
  2. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 53.
  3. ↑ Al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, al-Tawḥīd, 1398 AH, pp. 284-285.
  4. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha, edited by Subḥī al-Ṣāliḥ, sermon 1, p. 39.
  5. ↑ Tamīmī Āmidī, Ghurar al-ḥikam wa durar al-kalim, 1410 AH, p. 712.
  6. ↑ Khazzāz Rāzī, Kifāyat al-athar, 1401 AH, p. 262.
  7. ↑ Al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, ʿIlal al-sharāyiʿ, 1385 SH, vol. 1, p. 9.
  8. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 1, p. 180; ʿAyyāshī, Tafsīr al-ʿAyyāshī, 1380 AH, vol. 2, p. 116.
  9. ↑ Al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Manāhij al-yaqīn, 1415 AH, p. 41.
  10. ↑ For example, see: Al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Nahj al-ḥaqq wa kashf al-ṣidq, 1982 CE, p. 51; Ibn Maytham al-Baḥrānī, Qawāʿid al-marām fī ʿilm al-kalām, 1406 AH, p. 28.
  11. ↑ Fāḍil Miqdād, Sharḥ al-Bāb al-ḥādī ʿashar, 1427 AH, p. 12.
  12. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, pp. 24-25; Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 9-12.
  13. ↑ Nahj al-balāgha, edited by Subḥī al-Ṣāliḥ, first sermon, p. 39.
  14. ↑ See: Al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Nahj al-ḥaqq wa kashf al-ṣidq, 1982 CE, p. 51; Ibn Maytham al-Baḥrānī, Qawāʿid al-marām fī ʿilm al-kalām, 1406 AH, pp. 28-29.
  15. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, pp. 39-42; Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qurʾān, 1386 SH, vol. 2, pp. 42-43.
  16. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 44.
  17. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 53.
  18. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 53.
  19. ↑ Subḥānī and Birinjkār, Maʿārif wa ʿaqāʾid 3, 1395 SH, pp. 85-86.
  20. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, pp. 44-45.
  21. ↑ Subḥānī and Birinjkār, Maʿārif wa ʿaqāʾid 3, 1395 SH, p. 87.
  22. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 8, pp. 247-248.
  23. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i falsafih, 1394 SH, vol. 2, p. 412.
  24. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, "Ilāhiyyāt", pp. 393-398.
  25. ↑ Subḥānī and Birinjkār, Maʿārif wa ʿaqāʾid 3, 1395 SH, p. 82.
  26. ↑ Al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, al-Tawḥīd, 1398 AH, pp. 284-285.
  27. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 36; Al-Shaykh al-Ṭūsī, Tahdhīb al-aḥkām, 1407 AH, vol. 6, p. 141.
  28. ↑ Khazzāz Rāzī, Kifāyat al-athar, 1401 AH, p. 262.
  29. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 1, p. 180.
  30. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qurʾān, 1386 SH, vol. 4, p. 8.
  31. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, pp. 27-28.
  32. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, p. 28.
  33. ↑ Burhān, Farhang-i fārsī-yi Burhān-i qāṭiʿ, 1380 SH, p. 327; Nafīsī, Farhang-i Nafīsī, Khayyam Bookstore Publishing, vol. 2, p. 1332.
  34. ↑ Dehkhodā, Loghatnāmih-yi Dehkhodā, vol. 6, p. 9556, under the word Khuda.
  35. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 57-58.
  36. ↑ Khusraw-panāh, Masāʾil-i jadīd-i kalāmī wa falsafih-yi dīn, 1393 SH, vol. 1, p. 55.
  37. ↑ Burhān, Farhang-i fārsī-yi Burhān-i qāṭiʿ, 1380 SH, p. 327; Nafīsī, Farhang-i Nafīsī, Khayyam Bookstore Publishing, vol. 2, p. 1332.
  38. ↑ Burhān, Farhang-i fārsī-yi Burhān-i qāṭiʿ, 1380 SH, p. 327; Nafīsī, Farhang-i Nafīsī, Khayyam Bookstore Publishing, vol. 2, p. 1332.
  39. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 73-74.
  40. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 44.
  41. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 78-79.
  42. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 73-74.
  43. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, pp. 29-30.
  44. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, pp. 29-30.
  45. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 217.
  46. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 68; Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 45.
  47. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 68.
  48. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 68; Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 45.
  49. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 73.
  50. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 74-75.
  51. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 54.
  52. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 215.
  53. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", p. 75.
  54. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", pp. 75-76.
  55. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 216.
  56. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, pp. 92-93.
  57. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 216.
  58. ↑ For example, see: Al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Manāhij al-yaqīn, 1415 AH, p. 41; Fāḍil Miqdād, Irshād al-ṭālibīn, 1405 AH, p. 15; Jurjānī, al-Taʿrīfāt, 1370 SH, p. 80.
  59. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 218.
  60. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", p. 75.
  61. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", pp. 76-77.
  62. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", p. 77.
  63. ↑ Mujtahid Shabistarī, "Khidā dar kalām-i Islāmī", p. 77.
  64. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 214.
  65. ↑ Ṣalawātī, "Khidā dar falsafih-yi Islāmī", p. 86.
  66. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 92.
  67. ↑ Muṭahharī, Kulliyyāt-i ʿulūm-i Islāmī, 1402 SH, vol. 1, p. 195.
  68. ↑ For example, see: Ibn Sīnā, al-Shifāʾ—al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1404 AH, pp. 37-38, 43 and 343; Ibn Sīnā, al-Taʿlīqāt, 1404 AH, pp. 158, 175 and 184; Mullā Ṣadrā, al-Ḥikmat al-mutaʿāliya, 1981 CE, vol. 6, pp. 11, 41, 57, 92; ʿUbūdiyyat, Ithbāt-i wujūd-i khidā bih ravish-i aṣl-i mawḍūʿī, 1389 SH, pp. 17-19.
  69. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, pp. 91-92.
  70. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, pp. 92-93.
  71. ↑ ʿUbūdiyyat, Ithbāt-i wujūd-i khidā bih ravish-i aṣl-i mawḍūʿī, 1389 SH, p. 28.
  72. ↑ Ṣalawātī, "Khidā dar falsafih-yi Islāmī", p. 86.
  73. ↑ Ibn Sīnā, al-Shifāʾ: al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1404 AH, vol. 1, p. 23.
  74. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i falsafih, 1394 SH, vol. 2, p. 412.
  75. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i falsafih, 1394 SH, vol. 1, p. 74.
  76. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", p. 214.
  77. ↑ Amīnī-nizhād, Bābāʾī and Kirmānī, Mabānī wa falsafih-yi ʿirfān-i naẓarī, 1390 SH, p. 213.
  78. ↑ ʿUbūdiyyat, proving the existence of God through the axiomatic method, 1389 SH, p. 35.
  79. ↑ Amīnī-nizhād, Bābāʾī and Kirmānī, Mabānī wa falsafih-yi ʿirfān-i naẓarī, 1390 SH, p. 213.
  80. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 70; Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", pp. 220.
  81. ↑ Muṭahharī, Footnotes to Uṣūl-i falsafih wa ravish-i riʾālīsm, 1390 SH, vol. 5, p. 91.
  82. ↑ Hāshimī, "Khidā (2)", pp. 220-221.
  83. ↑ See: Mīlānī, Farātar az ʿirfān, 1382 SH, pp. 79, 95-96, 151-152 and 242-247.
  84. ↑ "Philosophical Theology—Third Session", Thaqalayn website.
  85. ↑ ʿUbūdiyyat, Ithbāt-i wujūd-i khidā bih ravish-i aṣl-i mawḍūʿī, 1389 SH, pp. 29-34.
  86. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, p. 27; Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar ḥikmat wa sharīʿat, 1386 SH, pp. 54 and 425.
  87. ↑ For example, see: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 1 p. 135; Al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, al-Tawḥīd, 1398 AH, pp. 70 and 89.
  88. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Asrār al-āyāt, 1360 SH, p. 22.
  89. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, p. 27.
  90. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, pp. 196-197.
  91. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, p. 87.
  92. ↑ ʿAlī-khānī, "Ilāhiyyāt-i salbī; sayr-i tārīkhī wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-hā", p. 91.
  93. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 132.
  94. ↑ ʿAlī-khānī, "Ilāhiyyāt-i salbī; sayr-i tārīkhī wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-hā", p. 100.
  95. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 134.
  96. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ʿAqāʾid-i istidlālī 1, 1393 SH, pp. 19-25; Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar ḥikmat wa sharīʿat, 1386 SH, pp. 57-61.
  97. ↑ See: Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ʿAqāʾid-i istidlālī 1, 1393 SH, pp. 25-28.
  98. ↑ Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar ḥikmat wa sharīʿat, 1386 SH, pp. 60-61.
  99. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, 1390 AH, vol. 1, p. 395 and vol. 3, p. 247.
  100. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qurʾān, 1386 SH, vol. 2, p. 42.
  101. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 33.
  102. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 33-35.
  103. ↑ See: Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, "Naqd-i naẓariyyih-yi burhān-nā-pazhīrī-yi wujūd-i khidā", pp. 182-183.
  104. ↑ See: Miṣbāḥ Yazدī, Āmūzish-i falsafih, 1394 SH, vol. 2, p. 412; Muḥammad-riḍāʾī, Ilāhiyyāt-i falsafī, 1391 SH, p. 161.
  105. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, al-Ḥikmat al-mutaʿāliya, 1981 CE, vol. 6, p. 14, footnote 3.
  106. ↑ Qur'an 14:10.
  107. ↑ Muḥammad-riḍāʾī, Ilāhiyyāt-i falsafī, 1391 SH, p. 161.
  108. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i falsafih, 1394 SH, vol. 2, pp. 414-415.
  109. ↑ For example, see: Qidirdān Qarā-malikī, Khidā dar ḥikmat wa sharīʿat, 1386 SH, pp. 89-298; Sulaymānī Bihbahānī and Laṭīfī, "Ithbāt-i khidā", pp. 169-173.
  110. ↑ Ṭūsī, Sharḥ al-Ishārāt wa l-Tanbīhāt, 1375 SH, vol. 3, pp. 66-67.
  111. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, al-Ḥikmat al-mutaʿāliya, 1981 CE, vol. 6, p. 13.
  112. ↑ Subḥānī, Mafāhīm al-Qurʾān, 1421 AH, vol. 6, p. 105.
  113. ↑ For example, see: Al-Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, al-Tawḥīd, 1398 AH, pp. 194, 195 and 219.
  114. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 91, p. 384.
  115. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 58.
  116. ↑ Dehkhodā, Loghatnāmih-yi Dehkhodā, vol. 6, pp. 9551-9552, under the word Khuda.
  117. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 150.
  118. ↑ Muʾassisa-yi Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif-i Fiqh-i Islāmī, Farhang-i fiqh muṭābiq-i madhhab-i Ahl-i Bayt (a), 1385 SH, vol. 3, p. 436.
  119. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 73.
  120. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 67; Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, pp. 109-110.
  121. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, pp. 82-83.
  122. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, pp. 82-83.
  123. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, p. 83.
  124. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 1, p. 84.
  125. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 74.
  126. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, pp. 74 and 81-85.
  127. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 297-298.
  128. ↑ See: Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ʿAqāʾid-i istidlālī 1, 1393 SH, pp. 77 and 87.
  129. ↑ See: Taftāzānī, Sharḥ al-ʿAqāʾid al-Nasafiyya, 1421 AH, pp. 78-82.
  130. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ʿAqāʾid-i istidlālī 1, 1393 SH, p. 79.
  131. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 164.
  132. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, pp. 166 and 168.
  133. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 167.
  134. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, vol. 4, p. 116.
  135. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-Karīm, 1366 SH, vol. 4, p. 54.
  136. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, 1390 AH, vol. 10, pp. 134-135.
  137. ↑ Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, pp. 70-71.
  138. ↑ Qur'an 37:35; Qur'an 47:19.
  139. ↑ Qur'an 2:163.
  140. ↑ Qur'an 2:163; Qur'an 18:110; Qur'an 21:108; Qur'an 41:6.
  141. ↑ Qur'an 3:62; Qur'an 38:65.
  142. ↑ Qur'an 112:1.
  143. ↑ See: Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, pp. 11-105.
  144. ↑ See: Muṭahharī, Majmūʿih-yi āthār, 1390 SH, vol. 26, p. 97; Jawādī Āmulī, Tawḥīd dar Qurʾān, 1395 SH, p. 201; Saʿīdī-mihr, Āmūzish-i kalām-i Islāmī 1, 1388 SH, p. 67.
  145. ↑ Jawādī Āmulī, Tawḥīd dar Qurʾān, 1395 SH, p. 610.
  146. ↑ Jawādī Āmulī, Tawḥīd dar Qurʾān, 1395 SH, p. 610.
  147. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, pp. 141-142.
  148. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, p. 142.
  149. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, p. 142.
  150. ↑ See: Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, pp. 201-202; Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, p. 138.
  151. ↑ See: Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, pp. 201-202.
  152. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, pp. 169-170.
  153. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 125.
  154. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 125.
  155. ↑ Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, pp. 255-256.
  156. ↑ See: Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, p. 171.
  157. ↑ Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, p. 201.
  158. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 125; Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, p. 179.
  159. ↑ Dādbih, "Ash'arites", p. 738.
  160. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Ilāhiyyāt, 1413 AH, vol. 2, pp. 35-37.
  161. ↑ Āriyā, Tārīkh-i firaq-i Islāmī wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1382 SH, p. 201.
  162. ↑ Allāh-budāshtī, Khudā-yi Salafiyya, 1393 SH, pp. 155-156.
  163. ↑ Allāh-budāshtī, Khudā-yi Salafiyya, 1393 SH, pp. 284-285.
  164. ↑ Allāh-budāshtī, Khudā-yi Salafiyya, 1393 SH, pp. 159-160.
  165. ↑ Allāh-budāshtī, Khudā-yi Salafiyya, 1393 SH, pp. 294-315.
  166. ↑ See: Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, Firaq wa madhāhib-i kalāmī, 1377 SH, p. 175.
  167. ↑ See: ʿĀbidī, Tawḥīd wa shirk dar nigāh-i Shīʿa wa Wahhābiyyat, Mashʿar Publishing, p. 83.
  168. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazدī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 113; Jawādī Āmulī, Tawḥīd dar Qurʾān, 1395 SH, pp. 603-606; Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, p. 62.
  169. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazدī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 114.
  170. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazدī, Āmūzish-i ʿaqāʾid, 1384 SH, p. 114.
  171. ↑ Salmānī Bihbahānī and Laṭīfī, "Ithbāt-i khidā", p. 165.
  172. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, pp. 18-19.
  173. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, pp. 67 and 69.
  174. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 225-226.
  175. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 224-225; Shākirīn, Ilḥād-i jadīd, 1403 SH, p. 45.
  176. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, p. 71; Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 251-254.
  177. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, p. 89.
  178. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, p. 171.
  179. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, pp. 175-177.
  180. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 231-234.
  181. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, pp. 179-184.
  182. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 242-246.
  183. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 248-251.
  184. ↑ Muṭahharī, ʿIlal-i girāyish bih māddīgarī, 1402 SH, pp. 185-192; Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, pp. 254-257.
  185. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, p. 224.
  186. ↑ Shākirīn, Ilḥād-i jadīd, 1403 SH, p. 43.
  187. ↑ Subḥānī, Rāh-i khidā-shināsī wa shinākht-i ṣifāt-i ū, 1375 SH, p. 5.
  188. ↑ Miṣbāḥ Yazدī, Khidā-shināsī, 1389 SH, p. 51.

Note

Template:Note

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