Ghuluww

Ghuluww (Arabic: ّالغُلُو; lit. doctrinal exaggeration) is the transgression of moderation in religion and excess regarding the status of prophets and imams. It is considered a deviant trend within religions that has always existed throughout human history. Some examples of ghuluww include: believing that a prophet or imam is God, considering someone to be the son of God, believing in the prophethood of Imam Ali (a) or the Shia Imams, and believing in the messianic role of individuals other than the promised Mahdi.

Political motives, intellectual backwardness, excessive affection, blind fanaticism, and the presence of infiltrators among Muslims aiming to cause doctrinal deviation have been identified as factors contributing to the emergence of exaggerated beliefs among Muslims. The Shia Imams (a), while rejecting the doctrines of the ghulat through reasoning and argument, also explained the causes and consequences of ghuluww and the conspiracies of the ghulat, urging the Shia to distance themselves from them.

In the hadiths, the ghulat are described as disbelievers and polytheists, and are referred to with expressions such as "the worst of God's creatures." Following such hadiths, Shia scholars refuted the ghulat and their exaggerated doctrines. Ghuluww has been examined in theology, evaluation of hadith transmitters ('ilm al-rijal), and sectarian studies. Jurists have also discussed ghuluww and the jurisprudential rulings concerning those who hold such beliefs. According to their fatwas, any exaggerated belief that leads to the denial of an essential tenet of religion is tantamount to disbelief, and those who hold such beliefs are considered disbelievers, with all jurisprudential rulings pertaining to disbelievers applying to them.

Concept and Status

In technical usage, ghuluww refers to when a religious person makes claims that go beyond what religion has defined for a given figure. It has also been defined as exceeding the proper bounds and abandoning moderation, particularly by overextending the status of prophets and imams. Literally speaking, the word ghuluww means excess and going beyond the limit.

The Quran addresses ghuluww in two verses and forbids it. In both Shia and Sunni hadith sources, various hadiths identify exaggerated claims and beliefs and warn Muslims against them. Ghuluww is among the issues that Muslim theologians have examined in terms of its nature and specific instances. Since one aspect of ghuluww pertains to the attributes and virtues of the infallible Imams (a), while another pertains to their very essence—where the ghulat elevate them to the level of divinity—it becomes the task of theology (kalam) to delineate the boundaries of these traits through sound arguments, so that belief in anything beyond them may be classified as ghuluww, and those who hold such beliefs as ghulat. The science of rijal is also one of the disciplines affected by the phenomenon of ghuluww, as scholars of rijal have addressed this issue. It is said that, since one of the aims of 'ilm al-rijal is to assess the reliability of transmitters appearing in transmission chains of hadiths, a key responsibility of rijal scholars is to identify and distinguish transmitters guilty of ghuluww who appear in these chains.

In the field of sectarian studies, discussions of ghuluww and its instances have arisen in the context of examining sects characterized by ghuluww or ghulat. Jurists have likewise explored the notion of ghuluww, its relationship to disbelief, and the jurisprudential rulings concerning those who hold exaggerated doctrinal beliefs.

Instances of Ghuluww

Muslim scholars, drawing on Quranic verses, hadiths, and historical reports, have identified specific instances of ghuluww concerning prophets and imams. Some of these instances are as follows:

Ghuluww in Divinity

Ghuluww in divinity includes the following cases:

• Belief that a human being is God: According to verses 17 and 72 of Qur'an 5, belief in the divinity of Jesus is an exaggerated claim that the Quran designates as disbelief. Similarly, belief in the divinity of Imam Ali (a) by the Saba'iyya (followers of 'Abd Allah b. Saba') and of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a) by the Khattabiyya sect have been regarded as exaggerated beliefs and classified as instances of disbelief. Another example of this type of ghuluww is found in the sect known as the Ithnayniyya, who believed that both the Prophet (s) and Imam Ali (a) were deities. A group among them who gave precedence to the divinity of the Prophet were known as the Mimiyya, while another group who prioritized the divinity of Imam Ali were called the 'Ayniyya.

• Belief that a human being shares in God's divinity: The doctrine of tafwid (delegation of divine affairs to human beings) has been cited as an example of such exaggerated beliefs. In one sense, tafwid refers to the belief that God created the Prophet and 'Ali b. Abi Talib, and then delegated to them matters such as creation, death and life, and the sustenance of human beings.

• Belief in the indwelling (hulul) of God in a human being or union (ittihad) with Him: The doctrines of the Bayaniyya sect are considered examples of this form of ghuluww. This sect was a branch of the Kaysaniyya and believed in the indwelling and transmigration of God's spirit through the prophets, 'Ali b. Abi Talib, and Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya. The founder of this sect was Bayan b. Sam'an al-Tamimi. He believed that the spirit of God indwelt in 'Ali b. Abi Talib and that a supernatural power manifested within him. According to this belief, when 'Ali uprooted the gate of Khaybar, it was not by physical strength but through a divine and supernatural force that had appeared in him through God's light. Bayan also held that a divine element had indwelt in 'Ali, the very same element that had been present in Adam, making him worthy of the angels’ prostration.

• Belief that someone is the child of God: It is said that three groups believe God has a child: (1) The Christians, who, according to the report of the Quran in verse 30 of Qur'an 9, consider Jesus the son of God, (2) the Jews, who, according to the same verse, believed that 'Uzayr was the son of God, and (3) the Arab polytheists, who, according to verse 57 of Qur'an 16 and verse 149 of Qur'an 37, regarded the angels as daughters of God.

Ghuluww in Prophethood and Imamate

Some exaggerated or ghuluww-involving views regarding prophethood and imamate are as follows:

• Belief in the prophethood of the Shia Imams: According to certain sources of sectarian studies, the sects known as the Ghurabiyya, Dhubabiyya, and Mukhti'a—counted among the ghulat—held that prophethood rightfully belonged to 'Ali b. Abi Talib. They believed that Gabriel, due to the great resemblance between 'Ali and the Prophet, erred when delivering the revelation and instead brought it to the Prophet. According to their claim, the Prophet then married his daughter to 'Ali in order to appease him.

• Belief that others shared with the Prophet in prophethood: The Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi (d. 1364-1442), in his work al-Mawa'iz wa-l-i'tibar fi dhikr al-khitat wa-l-athar, states that the sects known as the Sharikiyya, Sha'iyya, and Khulwiyya were considered among the ghali Shia groups, and that they believed 'Ali b. Abi Talib shared with the Prophet in the position of prophethood. However, some have cast doubt on the actual existence of such sects within Shiism under these names.

• When someone other than the Prophet or the Imams claims to be an Imam or a prophet: For example, heresiographers mention a figure named Abu Mansur al-'Ijli, who, after the death of Imam al-Baqir (a), claimed that Imam al-Sajjad (a) had appointed him as executor (wasi) and the Imam after al-Baqir (a). He later went on to declare that 'Ali, al-Hasan, al-Husayn, al-Sajjad, and al-Baqir were all messengers and prophets, and he also claimed prophethood for himself and for six of his descendants.

• Belief in the mahdi-hood of individuals other than the promised Mahdi: Among those for whom such a claim was made is Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya. According to heresiographers, the Karbiyya (a branch of the Kaysaniyya) believed that Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya was the promised Mahdi, currently in occultation, who would eventually appear to fill the world with justice after it had been filled with injustice and oppression. Another figure for whom mahdi-hood was claimed is Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah b. al-Hasan, known as al-Nafs al-Zakiyya. According to sectarian reports, the Mughiriyya (the followers of Mughirat b. Sa'id al-Bajali) believed that al-Nafs al-Zakiyya was the promised Mahdi. When he was killed, they asserted that he had not died but was alive and residing in a mountain in Mecca called 'Alamiyya, awaiting the time of his reappearance.

Ghuluww in Attributes and Virtues

Ghuluww (exaggeration) in attributes and virtues refers to ascribing a quality, action, or merit to someone that exceeds their actual rank or capacity. Some examples of this type of exaggeration concerning religious leaders—the Prophet and the infallible Imams—are as follows:

• Denial of the Prophet’s oversights (sahw al-nabi): According to scholars, one of the central theological controversies regarding the attributes and virtues ascribed to the Prophet (s) and Imams (a)—particularly the issue of whether or not the Prophet could inadvertent mistakes—emerged between the Qummi and Baghdadi theological schools in the third and fourth centuries AH. Al-Shaykh al-Saduq, citing his teacher Ibn Walid al-Qummi, states that the first degree of ghuluww is the denial of the Prophet’s oversights or inadvertent mistakes, and that anyone who rejects the notion that the Prophet could make such mistakes is counted among the ghulat. In contrast to this view stood al-Shaykh al-Mufid, a theologian of the Baghdadi school. He rejected the notion of sahw al-nabi and accused those who affirmed it of falling short in their understanding of religion and of lowering the status of the Prophet (s) and Imams (a). For al-Mufid, only the attribution of divinity or pre-eternity (qidam) to the Imams constituted ghuluww.

• Belief in the absolute knowledge of the unseen: Some Shia theologians attribute the knowledge of the unseen to the infallible Imams, asserting that they have knowledge not only of the general rulings of Islam but also of all specific events in the world, including those that have occurred and those that will occur. Al-Shaykh al-Mufid considered attributing the knowledge of the unseen to the Imams as an exaggerated (ghuluww-involving) belief, and he regarded those who held this view as ghulat. He argued that this attribute is solely reserved for God. However, some have also claimed that the Imams' knowledge of the unseen is independent and without divine instruction, viewing this as an exaggerated claim, and maintaining that this type of knowledge of the unseen is exclusive to God, with all knowledge and wisdom granted to the Prophets and Imams only by God's permission and teaching.

• Belief in the immortality of religious leaders: Al-Nawbahti, in Firaq al-Shi'a, refers to a sect with exaggerated claims known as the Bashiriyya, who believe that Imam Musa al-Kazim (a) did not die and that he is the Mahdi, currently in occultation. During his period of occultation, Muhammad b. Bashir (the founder of this sect) is believed to have been appointed as his vicegerent and successor. He was granted Imam Musa al-Kazim's ring, knowledge, and all that people need for both religious and worldly matters. Furthermore, according to al-Nawbahti, a group from the Kaysaniyya sect believes that Muhammad b. Hanafiyya did not die and is still alive, residing on a mountain called "Jabal Radwa," located between Mecca and Medina.

Other Exaggerated Claims

Other exaggerated claims made about individuals other than prophets and Imams include the following:

Ghuluww about the Caliphs

Some Sunni sources include reports or claims regarding the virtues of the first three caliphs that, according to some scholars, are exaggerated. For example, in the book Tarikh Baghdad, there is a report attributed to the Prophet (s) stating that during the Mi'raj (Ascension), he saw written on the Throne, after la ilaha illa Allah and Muhammad rasul Allah, the names of Abu Bakr, 'Umar b. Khattab, and 'Uthman. Ni'matullah Salihi Najafabadi considered the chain of transmission of this report weak and its content exaggerated.

It has been said about the knowledge of 'Umar b. Khattab that if the knowledge of all the people on earth were placed on one side of a scale and the knowledge of 'Umar on the other, his knowledge would outweigh the rest. It is also reported that in the year 20 AH, during the caliphate of 'Umar b. Khattab, an earthquake struck Medina. 'Umar struck the ground with his whip and said, "Calm down by God's permission," and the earth became still. From that year on, no further earthquakes occurred in Medina. Such claims have been considered exaggerated by some researchers. Similar exaggerated reports and claims have also been narrated regarding other companions and caliphs. 'Abd al-Husayn Amini, in al-Ghadir, listed some of these accounts based on Sunni sources and deemed them exaggerated.

Exaggerated Interpretations of the Quran

It is said that one example of improper and exaggerated interpretations is the use of Quranic verses to support the idea of transmigration of souls (tanasukh). According to al-Baladhuri, the second–third century AH historian, in his book Ansab al-Ashraf, some ghulat who believed in transmigration cited part of verse 8 of Qur'an 82: " and composed you in any form that He wished" as evidence for their belief in reincarnation. Fakhr al-Razi also noted in his Quranic exegesis that one of the verses used by proponents of transmigration to support their view was verse 38 of Qur'an 6. He regarded such an interpretation of the verse as improper and false.

At times, in order to express exaggerated virtues for certain individuals, improper interpretations of the Quran have been presented. According to 'Abd al-Husayn Amini, citing the book 'Umdat al-Tahqiq by Ibrahim b. 'Amir al-'Ubaydi, a Maliki jurist of the eleventh century AH, it is stated in the interpretation of the disjointed letters alif-lam-mim—the opening verse of Qur'an 2—that alif refers to Abu Bakr, lam to God (Allah), and mim to Muhammad. Amini considered this claim and interpretation as involving ghuluww.

Ismail Haqqi Bursevi, a Hanafi exegete who died in 1137 AH, in his Quranic exegesis Ruh al-Bayan, interprets the verse "and the Throne of your Lord will be borne that day by eight [angels]" by citing a report from the Prophet (s) stating that in this world, they are four individuals, and on the Day of Resurrection, God will support them with four others. He then quotes some who say that these four are Abu Hanifa, Malik b. Anas, Muhammad b. Idris al-Shafi'i, and Ahmad b. Hanbal—considered bearers of the Sharia. Scholars have regarded this interpretation of the verse as exaggerated or involving ghuluww.

Belief in the Removal of the Virtues of the Imams from the Quran

Muhammad Jawad Mashkur (d. 1995), historian and professor at the University of Tehran, stated in his book Tarikh-i Shi'a wa firqa-hayi Islami (The History of Shiism and Islamic Sects) that some Shia ghulat believe in the distortion of the present Quran. They claim that the compilation and collection of the current Quran took place during the time of 'Uthman and that many verses—including those concerning the virtues of 'Ali b. Abi Talib and his family—were altered or removed. Mashkour emphasized that this view is an instance of ghuluww.

Muhammad Hasan Ahmadi, a researcher in the fields of hadith and Quranic studies, in his article "The ghulat and the idea of Quranic distortion," examined the transmitters found in the chains of transmission for reports on Quranic distortion within Shia sources. He analyzed these transmitters in terms of whether they held exaggerated views or not and identified a list of thirteen individuals in whom he believes traces of exaggeration (ghuluww) can be found. According to him, a large portion—nearly two-thirds—of the hadiths regarding the distortion of the Quran have been transmitted through ghulat.

Exaggerated Claims Regarding Certain Books

The book Sahih al-Bukhari is one of the most authoritative hadith collections among Sunnis, yet certain exaggerated claims have been made about it. It has been described as being equal in weight to the Quran, and it is said that if it is read in a household during a plague, the people of that house will be protected from the disease. It is also claimed that whoever completes a full reading of it will have all their needs fulfilled. Additionally, it is said that having this book in a house brings down mercy and establishes blessings, and that it is the most authentic book on earth after the Quran. Similar exaggerated statements have been made about al-Muwatta' by Malik b. Anas, with claims that after the Quran, there is no book on earth more authentic than it.

Exaggerated claims have also been made regarding al-Kafi, one of the most authoritative hadith collections among Shia. The assertion that all of its hadiths are sound and reliable has been considered exaggerated by scholars such as Ni'matullah Salihi Najafabadi. Citing statements by scholars like 'Allama al-Majlisi and al-Muhaddith al-Nuri, he argues that it is a baseless and exaggerated claim that al-Kafi was presented to the Twelfth Imam (a), who then declared, "al-Kafi is sufficient for our Shia."

Exaggerated Claims about Scholars

Exaggerated claims and miraculous accounts have at times been made about religious scholars as well. For example, it has been said that Khidr visited Abu Hanifa every morning for five years to learn Islamic rulings from him. It has also been claimed that the Prophet (s) said, "All the prophets take pride in me, and I take pride in Abu Hanifa." According to Abu Zahra, a fourteenth-century AH Egyptian historian and jurist, such fanaticism toward Abu Hanifa reached a point where some individuals ascribed to him a status close to that of the prophets, believing that the Torah foretold his coming, that the Prophet mentioned him by name, and described him as a guide for the umma. Similar exaggerated statements have been reported about other jurists of the four Sunni schools, as well as certain other Sunni scholars. 'Abd al-Husayn Amini compiled several such accounts in his book al-Ghadir, considering them exaggerated and fabricated.

Attribution of Ghuluww to the Shia

Certain scholars have attributed exaggerated beliefs to the Shia, and some of these claims are as follows:

• Abu 'Umar b. Muhammad b. 'Abd Rabbih, a fourth-century AH Sunni scholar, in his book al-'Iqd al-Farid, compared the Shia to the Jews and claimed that the Shia, like the Jews, consider Gabriel, the archangel, to be an enemy, believing that he mistakenly delivered revelation to the Prophet (s) instead of bringing it to Imam Ali (a). In response to this statement, it has been said that heresiographers attributed such beliefs to groups called Dhubabiyya, Ghurabiyya, and Mukhti'a. Sayyid Muhsin al-Amin rejected the attribution of these sects to mainstream Shiism, arguing that the names of such groups are not found in any Shia works of sectarian studies. He believed that the creation of these sect names was motivated by an intent to defame and misrepresent the Shia community.

• Abu Muhammad 'Uthman b. 'Abd Allah al-'Iraqi, a fifth-century AH Hanafi scholar, in his work al-Firaq al-Muftariqa, identified the Imamiyya and Zaydiyya as a single group and claimed they were among the ghulat who at times regarded Imam 'Ali as God, sometimes as a prophet, and at other times as a partner in prophethood. Similarly, Ibn Taymiyya accused the Shia of exaggeration (ghuluww), stating that some among them believed in the divinity of Imam Ali, while others held that he was a prophet. In response, it has been noted that only a small number of ghulat held such views—views that were explicitly condemned in Shia hadith literature and rejected by the Shia Imams themselves. Therefore, it is inaccurate to attribute the beliefs of this marginalized and repudiated minority to all Shia, particularly the Imamiyya. In fact, within Imami jurisprudence, believing in the divinity or prophethood of Imam Ali—since it amounts to the denial of God and the Prophethood of Muhammad—is considered an act of disbelief (kufr), and those who hold such beliefs are deemed disbelievers.

• 'Abd Allah 'Ali al-Qamisi, a Wahhabi writer and researcher, in his book al-Sira' bayna al-Islam wa-l-Wathaniyya (The struggle between Islam and idolatry), claimed that a group of Shia believe the religious obligations (wajibat) and prohibitions (muharramat) are symbolic references to specific individuals who must be either loved or opposed. As a result of this belief, he asserts, they considered prohibitions lawful and abandoned obligations. However, sectarian scholars have attributed this belief not to mainstream Shia, but specifically to a group of ghulat known as the Mansuriyya—followers of Abu Mansur al-'Ijli. According to a report in Rijal al-Kashshi, Abu Mansur was cursed three times by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a) due to his exaggerated beliefs.

• A number of Sunni scholars have considered certain Shia beliefs—such as bada' (divine alteration of decree), raj'a (the return of the dead after the Twelfth Imam’s reappearance), 'isma (infallibility), and the knowledge of the unseen ('ilm al-ghayb) by the Prophet (s) and the infallible Imams (a)—as cases of exaggeration (ghuluww). However, Shia scholars do not view these beliefs as exaggerated. Instead, they argue in favor of them by citing evidence from the Quran, the Sunna, and rational argumentation.

• Some have argued that attributes such as infallibility, knowledge of the unseen, dominance over the universe, and other superhuman qualities ascribed to the Shia Imams are cases of ghuluww. According to this view, the Imams were simply pious scholars and knowledgeable of Islamic law. This perspective is known as the 'ulama' al-abrar ("righteous scholars") theory. The origin of this theory is often traced to a statement by 'Abd Allah b. Abi Ya'fur, who described the Imams as 'ulama' abrar wa-atqiya' awsiya'—"righteous scholars and pious successors." It has also been said that some early Shia scholars, particularly from the Qummi school in the third and fourth centuries AH, rejected the attribution of superhuman traits to the Imams and regarded them merely as virtuous and learned individuals. However, this theory has faced several objections. One is that it lacks solid historical evidence. Others have argued that terms like 'alim (scholar) used by some companions of the Imams actually referred to the Imams’ divinely inspired knowledge, and that descriptors such as abrar and atqiya' were, in fact, alternative ways of expressing the doctrine of infallibility.

Attribution of Ghuluww to Hadith Transmitters

Ghuluww and deviant beliefs are among the key factors considered in the science of rijal (evaluation of hadith transmitters) when determining the unreliability of a transmitter and the weakness of the chain of transmission of a hadith. According to Sayyid Husayn Mudarrisi Tabataba'i, a scholar of Islamic studies, Shia works of rijal typically mark those who considered the Imams to be divine—whom he refers to as "out-of-group ghulat"—with labels such as fasid al-madhhab ("of corrupt doctrine") or fasid al-i'tiqad ("of corrupt belief"). Meanwhile, "in-group ghulat," or the mufawwida (those who believed God delegated divine authority to the Imams), are often described with terms like ahl al-irtifa' (people of overextending), murtafi' al-qawl (overextended in statements), or fi hadithihi irtifa' (having an overextension in his hadiths).

It is said that at times, scholars of rijal differ in their assessment of whether a transmitter should be considered ghali. When the status of such transmitters remains unresolved, the hadiths they transmit also remain in a state of uncertainty—unless decisive evidence is found elsewhere to either confirm or reject the authenticity of those hadiths. Some scholars trace the root of this disagreement to differing conceptions of ghuluww (exaggeration) among the scholars of rijal.

For example, in Rijal al-Kashshi, regarding a figure named Husayn b. 'Ubayd Allah al-Sa'di al-Muharrir, a Shia hadith transmitter from the time of Imam al-Hadi (a), it is reported that he was expelled from Qom on the charge of ghuluww. Al-Najashi states that he was accused of ghuluww, but that he authored sound and reliable books. Scholars such as Abu 'Ali al-Ha'iri and Mamaqani rejected this accusation and believed that the claims made by scholars of the Qom school in the third and fourth centuries AH—that a transmitter was a ghali or that he had been expelled from Qom—are not reliable or trustworthy, and do not necessarily indicate the weakness of that transmitter. This is because certain beliefs that were later considered essential to the faith—such as the doctrine of the Prophet’s oversights or inadvertent mistakes (sahw al-nabi)—were regarded by those earlier scholars as instances of ghuluww.

Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Khoei also considered ghuluww to have varying degrees, stating that at times, a person who himself holds a mild degree of ghuluww may regard others—whose ghuluww is more severe—as ghulat, and may even curse them.

Ni'matullah Safari Furushani, a researcher and board member of the Society for Historical Studies of the Seminary of Qom, has investigated Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Khoei’s Mu'jam Rijal al-Hadith and identified the names of around 120 transmitters who have been accused of ghuluww in Shia sources of rijal. He argues that the mere accusation of ghuluww against a transmitter does not amount to definitive proof that the transmitter actually held exaggerated beliefs.

Shia Opposition to the Ghuluww Movement

The Imams of the Shia, on various occasions, actively opposed the ghuluww movement and any kind of exaggerated doctrines. In the article "An examination of how the Imams confronted Ghali movements," it is stated that the Imams' initial approach to dealing with ghuluww aimed at clarification. Based on the transmitted reports, their confrontation with ghuluww primarily involved clarifying its meaning, disavowing the ghulat, and warning their followers against exaggerated ideas. Later, during the time of Imam al-Baqir (a) and Imam al-Sadiq (a)—and even after them—when the ghuluww movement became more organized and ghali sects multiplied, the Imams’ response was no longer limited to clarification and mere description. They also identified individuals guilty of ghuluww and instructed the Shia community to reject and disassociate from them.

For example, in a hadith transmitted from Imam al-Sadiq (a), regarding the exegesis of verses 222 and 223 of Qur'an 26, he names seven ghalis from his time, stating that devils descend upon them. In another hadith attributed to him, he explicitly curses Mughira b. Sa'id—the founder of the ghali sect known as the Mughiriyya—for inserting fabricated reports into the books of Imam al-Baqir’s companions. According to a report in Rijal al-Kashshi, Imam al-Rida (a) identifies several ghalis who falsely attributed sayings to Imam al-Baqir (a), Imam al-Sadiq (a), Imam Musa al-Kazim (a), and himself.

In the hadiths, ghalis are at times described with phrases such as "the worst of God's creatures," and in some reports, they are labelled as disbelievers or polytheists. Other hadiths warn that sitting with ghalis or participating in their gatherings leads to a departure from faith and is thus prohibited.

Following the example of the Imams, Shia scholars also combated ghuluww, refuting its doctrines through argument and reasoning. Among these scholars, researchers often highlight the hadith scholars of the Qom school, which in the third century AH was considered the primary intellectual center of Shiism. These scholars are said to have reacted strongly to the spread and influence of ghali and mufawwida ideas and works. They would label anyone who attributed superhuman qualities to the Imams as a ghali and expel them from the city. For instance, al-Shaykh al-Saduq, one of the prominent scholars of the Qom school, regarded ghalis and mufawwida as disbelievers. He believed their harm was greater than that of non-Muslims—such as Jews, Christians, and all heretics—and he would invoke curses upon them.

Works were also written within this same school in refutation of ghuluww. Among them is al-Radd 'ala al-ghuluww by al-Saffar al-Qummi, as well as texts bearing the same title by Yunus b. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Qummi, Husayn b. Sa'id al-Ahwazi, and Muhammad b. Awrama al-Qummi—who were Shia transmitters and companions of Imam al-Rida (a)—as well as by several others.

Perspective of Shia Jurists

The jurists have not addressed ghuluww as an independent issue; rather, they have discussed its jurisprudential rulings under the broader category of disbelief and the rulings related to disbelievers. Ghuluww—in the sense of believing in the divinity or lordship of Imam Ali (a) or any of the Imams—is unanimously considered disbelief by Shia jurists, since it entails a denial of God. Anyone who holds such a belief is deemed a disbeliever and is judged to be impure.

Jurists such as Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and Sayyid 'Abd al-A'la Sabziwari have considered ghuluww—in the sense of tafwid (the belief that God has delegated all affairs to the Prophet and the Imams, granting them independent authority to act without divine will)—to be a form of disbelief, since it contradicts belief in God’s oneness (tawhid). Likewise, belief in God's indwelling (hulul) in human beings or union (ittihad) with them is also regarded as disbelief, because it implies the divinity or lordship of beings other than God and leads to the belief in God’s corporeality. According to Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, ghuluww—in the sense of believing in the prophethood of someone other than the Prophet (s), or claiming that the person exaggerated about is superior to the Prophet (s) or equal to him in such a way that the Prophet’s mission does not encompass them—is also considered disbelief, as it contradicts the second testimony, namely the testimony to Muhammad's prophethood.

Jurists such as al-Shaykh al-Ansari and Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim have considered the criterion for declaring a ghali to be a disbeliever to lie in the denial of what is known as an essential tenet of religion. Accordingly, beliefs such as hulul (divine indwelling) or excessive attribution of qualities to the prophets and Imams—such as ascribing to them the power of creation or provision—are considered disbelief if they entail the denial of an essential tenet of the religion.

Background and Origin

Ghuluww is a deviant doctrinal trend that, according to some researchers, has existed throughout the long history of humankind. It is said that in pre-Islamic religions, based on Quranic reports, there were instances of ghuluww concerning natural creatures, human beings, prophets, and angels. Some scholars trace the origins of ghuluww and the emergence of ghali tendencies in Islam to the time of 'Abd Allah b. Saba'. Others, however, argue that the historical and biographical sources provide little evidence of ghuluww during the lifetimes of the first three Shia Imams (a). According to this view, the phenomenon began to appear after the martyrdom of the third Imam (a)—amid the uprising of the Tawwabun, the oppression faced by the Ahl al-Bayt (a), the revolts of the Zaydis, Kaysanites, and Kharijites, as well as broader cultural and social conditions. It was under these circumstances that ghuluww developed, manifesting in beliefs such as the divinity of Imam Ali (a) or the idea of a divine element indwelling in him.

Ibn Abi al-Hadid, in his Sharh Nahj al-Balagha, identifies the origin of ghuluww in Islam as the region of Iraq, particularly Kufa. He explains that unlike the Hijaz, the nature of Iraq—with its environment of intellectuals, thinkers, and vigorous debate on various subjects—fostered the growth of diverse and unusual religious sects, such as Manichaeism and Mazdakism, along with a range of other beliefs. As a result, the people of this region, influenced by these religious and creeds, tended toward ghuluww when they witnessed miracles and extraordinary acts from Imam Ali (a). In contrast, the people of the Hijaz, despite witnessing miracles from the Prophet (s), did not fall into such exaggeration regarding him. Kamil Mustafa al-Shaybi, an Iraqi writer and professor of philosophy at the University of Baghdad, likewise argues in his book al-Sila bayn al-Tasawwuf wa-l-Tashayyu' (Relationship between Sufism and Shiism) that the phenomenon of ghuluww and the rise of ghali movements within Shiism originated in Kufa. He believes that the people of Kufa, in an effort to compensate for their previous failings and injustices toward Imam Ali (a), became excessive in their love for him and in their enmity toward his opponents, eventually falling into ghuluww.

Rasul Jafarian, however, denies the presence of ghali tendencies during the time of Imam Ali (a). He maintains that what can be seriously identified as ghuluww emerged only after the first half of the first Islamic century, particularly around the year 66 AH—following the uprising of al-Mukhtar. Others trace the earliest signs of ghuluww back to the Prophet’s own lifetime, shortly after the death of his son Ibrahim. According to historical accounts, a solar eclipse occurred at the time of Ibrahim’s passing, and some people believed that the eclipse was caused by the death of the Prophet’s son. This belief was met with a firm response and rejection by the Prophet himself.

Al-Shaykh al-Mufid, citing reports in which Umar b. al-Khattab—despite the Prophet’s death—denied his passing and claimed that the Prophet, like Moses, had only temporarily disappeared from his people and would return after forty days, identified this statement as the first instance of ghuluww following the Prophet’s death.

Causes of Its Emergence

Drawing upon historical studies and the study of hadith sources, researchers have identified a number of factors that help explain the origins of ghuluww, particularly within the Islamic and Shia world. Some of these factors include:

• Political motives: One of the main factors behind ghuluww—especially in relation to the Imams of the Shia (a)—was political motives aimed at isolating them, accusing them of false claims, diminishing their standing among the people, and dispersing their followers. Rulers also supported the ideology of ghuluww and promoted it by incorporating certain ghalis and facilitating their infiltration among the ranks of Muslims.

• Intellectual backwardness: Factors such as ignorance regarding the true meaning of servitude toward God, bewilderment in the face of the miracles of the prophets and Imams, and the inability to scrutinize and discern forged hadiths have been identified as underlying causes of ghuluww. Ahmad b. Ali al-Tabrisi, in al-Ihtijaj, cites a hadith from Imam al-Rida (a) in which he attributes belief in ghuluww-involving doctrines to ignorance.

• Excessive affection: Intense love is one of the factors that can lead to exaggerated ideas and beliefs. In a hadith from Imam al-Sajjad (a), it is reported that the Jews, due to their deep affection for 'Uzayr, and the Christians, due to their intense love for Jesus, came to regard them as sons of God. This pattern, he says, has also occurred in relation to us, leading some individuals toward exaggerated views about us.

• Worldly motives: According to Hasan b. Musa al-Nawbakhti in Firaq al-Shi'a, during the time of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a), a man named Muhammad b. Abi Zaynab, known as Abu al-Khattab, claimed that the Imam was God and that he had been chosen as His prophet. With this exaggerated belief, he gained a following. It is said that these individuals sought to legitimize sin and the abandonment of religious obligations within an Islamic framework, using the law to justify their indulgent and pleasure-seeking lifestyles. Another example of this type of motive appears in a hadith from Imam Hasan al-'Askari, in which he describes two ghalis of his time—Muhammad b. Nasir al-Fihri and Hasan b. Muhammad al-Qummi—as deceitful individuals who used exaggerated doctrines to extract wealth from the people.

• Infiltrators: According to Salihi Najafabadi, some ghalis framed their deviant and exaggerated ideas in the form of hadiths and attributed them to the Imams (a). They also dispatched individuals to act as infiltrators under the guise of loyal supporters of the Imams. After gaining the trust of the Imams’ companions, they would borrow their books under the pretext of copying their transmitted hadiths, insert forged hadiths into the copied versions, and then return the original books to their owners. These altered copies would then be reproduced, leading to the spread of ghuluww-involving hadiths. Some have also argued that the infiltration of individuals from Jewish and Christian backgrounds—who themselves held exaggerated beliefs—into the Muslim community with the aim of creating doctrinal deviation was among the factors that contributed to the emergence of ghuluww in Islam.

• Myth-making impulse: The tendency toward myth-making and hero-worship has been one of the factors leading to the fabrication of exaggerated stories about certain religious and national figures.

• Blind fanaticism: Such forms of uncritical zeal have also been major factors in the emergence of ghuluww-involving ideas in various societies, especially among Muslims.

Bibliography

Some of the works that have been written on the subject of ghuluww include the following:

• Ghuluww: daramadi bar afkar wa 'aqa'id-i ghaliyan dar din (Ghuluww: an introduction to the ideas and beliefs of the ghulat in religion) by Ni'matullah Salihi Najafabadi: This book consists of an introduction and two chapters. In the first chapter, the author defines ghuluww, explores the causes of its emergence in the Islamic world, and presents examples of exaggerated ideas and beliefs. The second chapter identifies three groups—the enemies of the Prophet’s household, overly zealous supporters, and those driven by libertine and pleasure-seeking motives—as three contributors to ghuluww.

• Ghuluw: haqiqat wa aqsam-i an (Ghuluww: its reality and categories), by Sayyid Kamal Haydari: This book examines the nature of ghuluw, its origins and background, the claims made by the ghulat regarding the Ahl al-Bayt (a), and how the Ahl al-Bayt (a) viewed the ghulat.

• Ghaliyan: kawushi dar jaryan-ha wa barayand-ha (The Ghulat: an inquiry into currents and outcomes) by Ni'matullah Safari Furushani: This book is divided into four chapters. The first chapter covers outlines and problems regarding the definition of ghuluww, its historical background, and the causes of its emergence. The second chapter examines the ghulat and their various sects throughout history. The third chapter, titled "The Ghulat in the mirror of belief and practice," discusses both the doctrines unique to the ghulat and those they share with Shiism. The fourth chapter explores the impact of the ghulat on Shia history.

Note 1: What is meant by hulul (indwelling) is that the spirit of God, or parts of it, indwells in a person, such as a prophet or an imam, in such a way that it becomes one with them.