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Painting of the Slave Market in Constantinople by William Allan, a 19th-century Scottish painter

Slavery was a social and legal institution that placed an individual under the ownership of another and deprived them of certain rights. This phenomenon was common at the time of the emergence of Islam. Islam accepted slavery but reformed it with specific restrictions and rights, and prohibited previous methods of enslavement.

Jurists have differing views regarding the ruling on slavery; the majority of Shi'a scholars consider it among the permanent rulings that are practically not implemented due to changes in time and circumstances, while another group believes that with the change of conditions, the ruling on slavery has been abrogated.

Islam established rights for slaves, such as the provision of food and clothing, the prohibition of torture, the right to marriage, limited ownership, and reductions in certain duties and punishments. It also provided ways for their gradual liberation, including manumission (ʿitq), contract of manumission (mukātaba), and freedom under specific religious or legal conditions.

The Quran, Shi'a hadith sources, and the biography of the Prophet and the Imams emphasize kind treatment, education, and the gradual liberation of slaves. Slavery gradually decreased in Islamic societies and became practically obsolete, although it continued in some non-Islamic societies until the 19th and 20th centuries. Researchers believe that the approach of Islam led to the gradual decline of slavery.

Status of Slavery in Islam

Slavery means the ownership of one human being by another, which limits the rights of the slave.[1] This phenomenon was common in ancient societies and world civilizations and continued in some regions after the emergence of Islam until the 19th and 20th centuries CE.[2]

Verses of the Quran such as (mā malakat aymānukum) refer to the subject of male and female slaves (concubines) and their relationships.[3] Also, traditions have been narrated in Shi'a sources, such as the Four Books, regarding rulings and moral advice related to slaves.[4] In jurisprudential books, the rulings of slavery are examined in chapters such as manumission, willful manumission, contract of manumission, and birth of a child to a slave. Furthermore, in other jurisprudential sections such as prayer, Zakat, Hajj, Jihad, nikah, and Inheritance, rulings related to slaves are discussed.[5]

Document of the sale of a female slave in 1279 AH

Is the Ruling on Slavery Temporary or Permanent?

Jurists have different views regarding the ruling on slavery:

Permanent Ruling with Limited Implementation

The majority of jurists believe that the permissibility of slavery is among the permanent rulings of Islam.[citation needed] For example, Sayyid Muhammad Rida Gulpaygani (d. 1414 AH) considered the buying and selling of slaves in his time to be in accordance with religious standards.[6] Muhammad Ishaq al-Fayyad also considers it permissible for the heirs of a murdered Muslim to enslave a murderer who is a dhimmi disbeliever.[7] Others, such as Tabrīzī (d. 1385 Sh/2006)[8] and Muḥammad Saʿīd al-Ḥakīm (d. 1443 AH/2021),[9] believe that with the disappearance of this phenomenon, the subject of the ruling has also ceased to exist.

Abrogation of the Ruling with the Change of Historical Conditions

A group considers slavery to be limited to specific historical conditions, and with the change of conditions, the ruling has ceased.[10] Makārim Shīrāzī[11] and Husayn 'Ali Montazeri[12] (d. 1388 Sh/2009) consider slavery in contemporary times to be forbidden. Mehdi Ha'iri Yazdi (d. 1378 Sh/1999) believes that the approval (emza) of Islam for slavery was due to its prevalence at the time, and with the change of economic and cultural conditions, the ruling on slavery has practically been abrogated.[13]

Gradual Elimination of Slavery in Islam

At the time of the emergence of Islam, slavery was common in various societies.[14] Islam recognized the principle of slavery but limited it with specific conditions and rights.[15] This type of acceptance is called a signature ruling (emza'i) in jurisprudence.[16] Researchers believe that the approach of Islam caused a gradual decrease in slavery,[17] and its immediate abolition could have caused disruption in the lives of slave owners and the slaves themselves.[18] According to Muhammad Taqi Ja'fari (d. 1377 Sh/1998), slavery was declining at the end of the first century AH, and the liberation of slaves in peripheral regions with the Bayt al-mal during the time of Umar b. Abd al-Aziz is evidence for this claim.[19]

Restricting the Ways of Enslavement

Before Islam, humans were enslaved through various means, such as tribal raids, kidnapping, unpaid debt, or the sale of children.[20] Islam declared these methods prohibited[21] and allowed enslavement only in two cases:[22]

  • Captives of war with disbelievers (kuffar harbi): In legitimate wars under the supervision of the Islamic ruler.[23]
  • Dhimmi disbelievers: Whom the family of the murdered person can forgive, execute as retaliation, or enslave.[24]

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Rights of Slaves in Islam

According to Gustave Le Bon, the French sociologist, the social status and living facilities of slaves in Islamic societies were better than those in Western and Christian counterparts.[37]

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Liberation of Slaves in Islamic Jurisprudence

Islam has provided mechanisms for the gradual liberation of slaves:

Compulsory Liberation of Slaves

Certain religious and legal conditions resulted in the liberation of a slave,[38] such as: expiation for sins and crimes (murder without retaliation,[39] breaking an oath,[40] Zihar,[41] and intentional breaking of fast[42]), breaking a vow,[43] or certain pre-Islamic customs (tearing one's collar or plucking one's hair in misfortunes).[44] Furthermore, the liberation of slaves was facilitated through the share of Zakat,[45] inheritance of an umm walad,[46] ownership of unmarriageable blood relatives,[47] amputation,[48] severe illnesses,[49] a will after the master's death,[50] or a non-Muslim slave's conversion to Islam.[51]

Encouraging Mechanisms

After the liberation of a slave, a specific legal and social relationship was established between the freed and the liberator, which is called Wala' al-'itq. In this situation, the liberator was considered the slave's heir in the absence of a blood heir and was responsible for Daman al-jarira (paying the blood money for accidental crimes).[57]

Ethics of Slavery in Islam

Islam emphasized the kind treatment of slaves,[58] and in Verse 36 of Sura al-Nisa', doing good to them is mentioned alongside kindness to parents.[59] Islamic traditions also emphasize observing rights, providing food and clothing,[60] affection and emotional attention to slaves,[61] and avoiding oppression towards them.[62] The Prophet (s) also considered the best individuals to be those who have the best behavior towards their slaves.[63]

Painting of Imam al-Husayn (a) by the bedside of John, the slave of Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, one of the Martyrs of Karbala, by Hassan Ruh al-Amin

Sira of the Prophet (s) and the Imams (a) in Interaction with Slaves

In historical and hadith sources, the behavior of the Prophet (s) and the Imams (a) towards male and female slaves is reported.[64] They would dine with slaves,[65] help them in hard tasks,[66] not speak with a humiliating tone,[67] and educate them. Some liberated slaves later became scholarly and social figures.[68] According to Ibn Shahrashub (d. 588 AH/1192), 12 of the liberated slaves of Imam 'Ali (a) and Imam al-Husayn (a) were martyred in the Event of Karbala.[69]

One of the traditions of the Infallibles (a) was buying and liberating slaves.[70] The Prophet (s) freed Abu Rafi' and Salma and married them to each other.[71] It is said that the Prophet (s) freed all his male and female slaves and at the time of his death, he left no slave as inheritance.[72] According to a narration from Imam al-Sadiq (a), Imam 'Ali (a) bought and freed about a thousand slaves.[73] Also, Imam al-Sajjad (a) freed nearly a thousand slaves.[74]

The mothers of seven of the Shi'a Imams were concubines. It is said that this issue shows the importance of virtue and Taqwa over lineage and social status, and had an effective role in reducing racial and class discrimination in the society of that time.[75]

Monograph

Cover of the book Bardigi dar Islam by Murtada Mutahhari

Independent works regarding the phenomenon of slavery have been written by Shi'a thinkers. For example:

  • Bardigī dar Islām: Murtada Mutahhari[76]
  • Bardigī az dīdgāh-i Islām: Mustafa Husayni Tabataba'i[77]
  • Barrasī-yi tārīkhī-yi Islām wa bardigī-dārī: Abd al-Rida 'Arab Abu Zayd Abadi[78]
  • Bardigī-dārī dar Islām: 'Ali Shabani[79]
  • Bardigī-dārī dar Islām: Muhammad I'tidad al-Saltane[80]

Notes

  1. ↑ Tahānawī, Kashshāf iṣṭilāḥāt al-funūn wa-l-ʿulūm, 1996, vol. 1, p. 870.
  2. ↑ Mīr-sharīfī, Sarniwisht-i asīr dar Islām, 1395 Sh, pp. 256-310.
  3. ↑ Sura al-Nisa', Verse 24; Sura al-Mu'minun, Verse 6.
  4. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 6, p. 177; Shaykh Ṣadūq, Man lā yaḥḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 3, p. 113; Shaykh Ṭūsī, al-Istibṣār, 1390 AH, vol. 4, p. 2; Shaykh Ṭūsī, Tahdhīb al-aḥkām, 1408 AH, vol. 8, p. 198.
  5. ↑ Muʾassasa Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif Fiqh Islāmī, Farhang-i fiqh, 1382 Sh, vol. 2, p. 92.
  6. ↑ Gulpāyagānī, Majmaʿ al-masāʾil, 1414 AH, vol. 5, p. 267.
  7. ↑ Fayyāḍ, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1426 AH, p. 686.
  8. ↑ Tabrīzī, Istiftāʾāt, 1427 AH, vol. 2, p. 495.
  9. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī Ḥakīm, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1434 AH, p. 802.
  10. ↑ For example, see Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1384 Sh, p. 7; Makārim Shīrāzī, Kitāb al-nikāḥ, 1424 AH, vol. 2, p. 63.
  11. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Istiftāʾāt, 1427 AH, vol. 1, p. 526.
  12. ↑ Muntaẓirī, Istiftāʾāt, 1384 Sh, vol. 2, p. 345.
  13. ↑ Ḥāʾirī Yazdī, Āfāq-i falsafa, 1379 Sh, pp. 143-144.
  14. ↑ Jād al-Mawlā, Muḥammad (s) al-mathal al-kāmil, 1388 AH, p. 285; ʿAlwān, Niẓām al-riqq fī l-Islām, p. 17-18.
  15. ↑ Khūʾī, Istiftāʾāt, 1381 Sh, p. 422; Makārim Shīrāzī, Kitāb al-nikāḥ, 1424 AH, vol. 7, p. 115; Muḥaqqiq Dāmād, Qawāʿid-i fiqh, 1384 Sh, p. 7.
  16. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif-i fiqh-i muqāran, 1427 AH, vol. 1, p. 562.
  17. ↑ Mushkīnī Ardabīlī, Risālahā-yi fiqhī wa uṣūlī, 1392 Sh, vol. 1, p. 399; Mīr-sharīfī, Sarniwisht-i asīr dar Islām, 1395 Sh, pp. 324-328.
  18. ↑ Muḥammad Rashīd, al-Waḥy al-Muḥammadī, 1426 AH, pp. 240-241; see Vāzār, Insān-dūstī dar Islām, 1362 Sh, p. 88.
  19. ↑ Jaʿfarī, Ḥuqūq-i jahānī-yi bashar wa kāwish-hā-yi fiqhī, 1392 Sh, pp. 337-338.
  20. ↑ Mīr-sharīfī, Sarniwisht-i asīr dar Islām, 1395 Sh, pp. 250-254.
  21. ↑ Muṭahharī, Bardigī dar Islām, 1444 AH, pp. 59-62; Makārim Shīrāzī, Kitāb al-nikāḥ, 1424 AH, vol. 2, p. 63.
  22. ↑ Muṭahharī, Bardigī dar Islām, 1444 AH, p. 12.
  23. ↑ For example, see Shaykh Ṭūsī, al-Mabṣūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 2, pp. 12-13; Ṣāḥib Jawāhir, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 21, p. 105.
  24. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, Mawsūʿat al-Shahīd al-Awwal, 1430 AH, vol. 13, p. 334; Ṭabāṭabāʾī Karbalāʾī, Riyāḍ al-masāʾil, 1404 AH, vol. 2, p. 511; Fayyāḍ, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1426 AH, p. 686.
  25. ↑ Shaykh Ṭūsī, al-Amālī, 1414 AH, p. 403.
  26. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, 1420 AH, vol. 4, p. 45.
  27. ↑ ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, p. 588.
  28. ↑ Bujnūrdī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhiyya, 1419 AH, vol. 5, p. 177.
  29. ↑ Miṣrī, al-Islām wa ḥurriyyat al-insān, 1422 AH, pp. 24-25.
  30. ↑ Ibn Ḥayyūn, Daʿāʾim al-Islām, 1385 AH, vol. 1, p. 342.
  31. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 3, p. 542.
  32. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 266.
  33. ↑ Shaykh Ṣadūq, Man lā yaḥḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 1, p. 431.
  34. ↑ Shaykh al-Mufīd, al-Muqniʿa, 1410 AH, p. 779.
  35. ↑ Shaykh Ṣadūq, Man lā yaḥḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 3, p. 535.
  36. ↑ Suyūṭī, al-Ashbāh wa-l-naẓāʾir, 1411 AH, p. 226.
  37. ↑ Gustave, Tamaddun-i Islām wa ʿArab, 1318 Sh, p. 494.
  38. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Kitāb al-nikāḥ, 1424 AH, vol. 2, p. 63.
  39. ↑ Ibn al-Idrīs al-Ḥillī, Mawsūʿat Ibn al-Idrīs al-Ḥillī, 1429 AH, vol. 13, p. 7.
  40. ↑ Sura al-Ma'ida, Verse 89; also see Ibn al-Idrīs al-Ḥillī, Mawsūʿat Ibn al-Idrīs al-Ḥillī, 1429 AH, vol. 13, p. 424.
  41. ↑ Sura al-Mujadila, Verse 3; Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1410 AH, vol. 6, p. 137.
  42. ↑ Imam Khomeini, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, 1434 AH, vol. 1, p. 305.
  43. ↑ Ibn al-Barrāj, al-Muhadhdhab, 1406 AH, vol. 2, p. 421.
  44. ↑ Sallār al-Daylamī, al-Marāsim, 1404 AH, p. 187; Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1410 AH, vol. 3, p. 14.
  45. ↑ Sura al-Tawba, Verse 60; for example, see ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Taḥrīr al-aḥkām, 1420 AH, vol. 1, p. 406; Shahīd al-Thānī, al-Rawḍat al-bahiyya, 1410 AH, vol. 2, pp. 46-47; Ṣāḥib Jawāhir, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 15, p. 344.
  46. ↑ Ṣāḥib Jawāhir, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 34, p. 377.
  47. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, Mawsūʿat al-Shahīd al-Awwal, 1430 AH, vol. 10, p. 141; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Manāhil, p. 605.
  48. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, Mawsūʿat al-Shahīd al-Awwal, 1430 AH, vol. 10, p. 141; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Manāhil, p. 605.
  49. ↑ Fāḍil Hindī, Kashf al-lithām, 1416 AH, vol. 8, p. 373.
  50. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 3, p. 88.
  51. ↑ Āl-i ʿUṣfūr, ʿUyūn al-ḥaqāʾiq al-nāḍira, 1414 AH, vol. 1, p. 319.
  52. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 20, p. 293.
  53. ↑ Thaʿlabī, al-Kashf wa-l-bayān, 1422 AH, vol. 10, p. 211.
  54. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 1, p. 453.
  55. ↑ Murawwij, Iṣṭilāḥāt-i fiqhī, 1379 Sh, p. 508.
  56. ↑ Shaykh Ṭūsī, al-Mabṣūṭ, 1387 AH, vol. 6, p. 82.
  57. ↑ For example, see Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām, 1408 AH, vol. 4, pp. 29-30.
  58. ↑ Mīr-sharīفī, Sarniwisht-i asīr dar Islām, 1395 Sh, p. 365.
  59. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 4, p. 355.
  60. ↑ Shaykh Ṭūsī, al-Amālī, 1414 AH, p. 403.
  61. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī, al-Nihāya, 1367 Sh, vol. 3, p. 170; Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaقāt al-kubrā, 1410 AH, vol. 2, p. 195.
  62. ↑ Warām b. Abī Firās, Tanbīh al-khawāṭir, 1410 AH, vol. 1, p. 58.
  63. ↑ Daylamī, Firdaws al-akhbār, 1407 AH, vol. 2, p. 272.
  64. ↑ For example, see Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 74; Ibn Qutayba, al-Maʿārif, 1992, pp. 144-149; Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, vol. 1, p. 477.
  65. ↑ See Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 8, p. 230.
  66. ↑ See Kūfī al-Ahwāzī, al-Zuhd, 1402 AH, p. 44.
  67. ↑ For example, see Sharīf al-Murtaḍā, Amālī al-Murtaḍā, 1998, vol. 2, p. 167.
  68. ↑ See Jaʿfariyān, Tārīkh-i Tashayyuʿ dar Īrān, 1387 Sh, pp. 127-129.
  69. ↑ Ibn Shahrāshūb, al-Manāqib, vol. 4, p. 113.
  70. ↑ See Jaʿfariyān, Tārīkh-i Tashayyuʿ dar Īrān, 1387 Sh, pp. 127-129.
  71. ↑ Balādhurī, Ansāb al-ashrāf, vol. 1, p. 477.
  72. ↑ Mīr-sharīfī, Sarniwisht-i asīr dar Islām, 1395 Sh, p. 368; see also Ibn Qutayba, al-Maʿārif, 1992, pp. 144-149.
  73. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 5, p. 74.
  74. ↑ Jaʿfariyān, Ḥayāt-i fikrī wa siyāsī-yi Imāmān-i Shīʿa (a), 1381 Sh, pp. 280-281.
  75. ↑ Dānishmand et al., “Vākāwī-yi naqsh-i Aʾimma-yi Aṭhār (a) dar irtiqāʾ-yi manzilat-i ijtimāʿī-yi 'Umm Walad-hā' bā taʾkīd bar mādarān-i Aʾimma (a),” pp. 54-73.
  76. ↑ Muṭahharī, Bardigī dar Islām, 1444 AH, publication info.
  77. ↑ Ḥusaynī Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Bardigī az dīdgāh-i Islām, 1372 Sh, publication info.
  78. ↑ ʿArab Abū Zayd Ābādī, Barrasī-yi tārīkhī-yi Islām wa bardigī-dārī, 1388 Sh, publication info.
  79. ↑ Shabānī, Bardigī-dārī dar Islām, 1401 Sh, publication info.
  80. ↑ Iʿtiḍād al-Salṭana, Bardigī-dārī dar Islām, 1403 Sh, publication info.

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