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Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya's grave in Damascus
Ibn Taymiyya's grave in Damascus
Full NameAhmad b. Abd al-Halim b. Abd al-Salam Ibn Taymiyya al-Harrani al-Dimashqi
Birth661/ 1263
Death728/ 1328
Burial PlaceSyria • Damascus
Known forSalafi Theorist • Issuer of unconventional fatwas • Intellectual founder of Wahhabism
StudentsIbn Qayyim al-Jawzi


Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm (Arabic:أحمد بن عبد الحليم), known as Ibn Taymiyya al-Ḥarrānī (ابن تيمية الحراني) (b. 661/1263 – d. 728/1328), was a Hanbali scholar and Salafi theorist who presented specific views contrary to the consensus of Muslim scholars and was imprisoned multiple times. Some of his opinions and fatwas that provoked criticism from Shi'a and Sunni scholars include calling visiting of graves an innovation, the literal interpretation of divine attributes, and excommunication of various Muslim groups such as Shi'a, Sufis, and philosophers.

Ibn Taymiyya wrote books on various subjects, including Quranic exegesis, theology, and jurisprudence. His works include Minhaj al-sunna, written in critique of al-Allama al-Hilli's Minhaj al-karama; al-Aqida al-Hamawiyya al-kubra, in response to theological questions about God and His attributes; and al-Nusus 'ala l-fusus, against the ideas of Ibn al-'Arabi. He opposed any form of ta'wil (esoteric interpretation), tashbih (anthropomorphism), and tamthil (representation) regarding the verses of the Qur'an. He did not consider tawassul—in the sense of adjuring God or asking something from Him through the Prophet (s)—to be permissible. Relying on the principle that disbelief is established by denying one of the necessities of religion or denying mutawatir or consensual rulings, he excommunicated groups including philosophers, Jahmiyya, Batiniyya, Isma'iliyya, Twelver Shi'a, and Qadariyya. Ibn Taymiyya also considered visiting graves to be an innovation and did not consider cursing Yazid b. Mu'awiya to be permissible.

He considered the love for Ahl al-Bayt (a) to be obligatory and reviling them to be oppression. He regarded the justice of the Companions as a religious axiom and considered anyone who denied it to be an infidel, yet he critiqued some of the Companions. Ibn Taymiyya introduced the Shi'a as the source of all seditions in the Islamic world and considered war against groups such as the Nusayriyya, Isma'iliyya, Qarmatians, and Druze to be obligatory.

Ibn Taymiyya is known as the intellectual founder of Wahhabism, and it is said that his ideas influenced the formation of takfiri groups such as ISIS and the al-Qa'ida. Views on Ibn Taymiyya's personality vary; some Sunni scholars have called him Shaykh al-Islam, while many Muslim scholars have condemned him for extremism and deviation from the consensus of Muslims. Many works have been written in opposition to and in critique of Ibn Taymiyya.

Biography

Minhaj al-sunna al-nabawiyya, one of Ibn Taymiyya's most controversial works.

Ahmad b. Abd al-Halim, known as Ibn Taymiyya, a Hanbali scholar, was born in 661/1263 in Harran (a region between Mosul and Levant).[1] His family migrated to Damascus when he was six years old due to the Mongol invasion. At the age of seventeen, he received a certificate of Ijtihad.[2] Ibn Taymiyya studied common sciences of his time such as jurisprudence, principles of jurisprudence, Hadith, theology, tafsir, philosophy, and mathematics, and had information about other religions, especially Judaism.[3]

Ibn Taymiyya's fame was due to his power of expression, harshness in debate with opponents,[4] opposition to the scholars of his time, recklessness before rulers, participation in political and social affairs and wars, and strictness in the issue of Enjoining the Good and Forbidding the Evil.[5]

After assuming the position of Shaykh al-Hanabila in Damascus, Ibn Taymiyya provoked protests among scholars and people by compiling works such as al-'Aqida al-hamawiyya al-kubra.[6] His conflicts and debates with various sects continued until he was summoned to Egypt in 704/1305 and was imprisoned on charges of doctrinal deviations. After his release, he remained in Egypt and published his views, which led to his imprisonment several times.[7]

In 712/1313, he returned to Damascus with al-Malik al-Nasir, who was heading to Levant to confront the Mongols, and resumed preaching and teaching. During his years in Damascus, he was imprisoned multiple times due to disagreements with jurists of other schools until he died in 728/1328 in the prison of the Citadel of Damascus.[8]

Teachers and Students

While in Damascus, Ibn Taymiyya studied under Majd b. 'Asakir, Ibn 'Abd al-Da'im, Qasim al-Arbali, Sharaf al-Din Ahmad b. Ni'ma al-Maqdisi, and others,[9] and received a certificate of Ijtihad from his teacher Sharaf al-Din.[10]

Ibn Kathir, the author of al-Bidāya wa l-nihaya,[11] Abu l-Hajjaj al-Mizzi, the author of Tahdhib al-kamal,[12] and Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya[13] were among his students.

Works

Ibn Taymiyya wrote numerous works in various fields of religious sciences. Ibn Shakir in Fawat al-wafayat listed his books and treatises by subject in tafsir, theology, jurisprudence, principles of jurisprudence, and fatwas.[14] His collection of books was also compiled by subject in the book Asma mu'allifat Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyya by Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya.[15]

  • Minhaj al-sunna al-nabawiyya: Written in 705/1305-6 in critique of the book Minhaj al-karama by al-Allama al-Hilli.[16] Many works have been published in critique and refutation of it, or in agreement with it.[17] Scholars from Sunni and even Salafi backgrounds, as well as Imami and Zaydi Shi'as, have written books opposing Minhāj al-sunna.[18] Ibn Taymiyya has been accused of being a Nasibi due to the content of this book.[19]
  • Al-Aqida al-Hamawiyya al-kubra: Written in response to theological questions about God and His attributes, provoking many objections among scholars of Islamic schools.[20] He opposed Theology and believed that theology, like Aristotelian philosophy, leads to deviation and heresy.[21] In this book, Ibn Taymiyya also criticized many beliefs of the Ash'arites, considering them weak.[22]
  • Al-Hisba fi l-Islam: Contains some of Ibn Taymiyya's economic thoughts.
  • Al-Siyasa al-shar'iyya li-islah al-ra'ie wa l-ra'iyya: Written in Egypt regarding guardianship, Imamate, and governance.
  • Al-Aqida al-Wasitiyya: Contains issues of principles of beliefs. This book provoked numerous theoretical disputes among scholars and people and led to Ibn Taymiyya's imprisonment.
  • Al-Nusus 'ala l-fusus: Against the ideas of Ibn 'Arabi in the book Fusus al-hikam.[23]

The 37-volume set Majmu'at al-fatawa is a massive work containing Ibn Taymiyya's writings; however, it is said that it does not cover all his works, as a complete catalogue of his writings has never been coherently compiled.[24]

Thoughts and Opinions

Ibn Taymiyya adopted opinions contrary to the views and fatwas of Sunnis in many instances; some of these are as follows:

Theological and Doctrinal Views

Ibn Taymiyya believed that the Prophet (s) had defined all the principles of religion, but theologians distanced people from prophetic teachings through rational arguments.[25] Despite his opposition to theology, he presented certain theological issues as doctrinal views which were opposed by many scholars of Islamic schools, including:

  • Attributing Literal Meanings to God's Narrative Attributes: In the treatise al-'Aqida al-Hamawiyya, following the People of Hadith, Ibn Taymiyya interpreted Narrated Attributes Sifat Khabariyya) such as God being settled on the Throne or having a hand and face according to their lexical and literal meanings. He considered any kind of esoteric interpretation (Taʿwil), divestment (taʿṭīl), alteration (tabdīl), anthropomorphism (tashbīh), and similitude (tamthīl) impermissible and criticized the interpreters (mu'awwila).[26] However, he considered these attributes to be unknown (in their modality). Some researchers believe that Ibn Taymiyya's view regarding the unknown nature of God's narrative attributes was to escape the accusation of anthropomorphism and corporealism (tajsīm).[27] Scholars of Islamic schools have interpreted and allegorically explained these attributes.[28]
  • Tawassul: Ibn Taymiyya mentions three meanings for Tawassul: 1. Tawassul through obedience to the Prophet (s), which he considers the perfection of Faith; 2. Tawassul through the supplication and intercession of the Prophet (s), which is possible during his lifetime and on the Day of Judgment; 3. Tawassul in the sense of adjuring God or asking something from Him through the Prophet's essence. Ibn Taymiyya does not consider the third type of Tawassul permissible and believes that such a practice did not exist in the conduct of the companions.[29]
  • Takfir: Believing that disbelief occurs by denying one of the necessities of religion, denying mutawātir rulings, or rulings upon which there is consensus,[30] Ibn Taymiyya declared takfīr on many individuals, groups, and sects, considering them outside the fold of religion. Philosophers, Jahmiyya, Batiniyya, Isma'iliyya, Twelver Shi'a, and Qadariyya are among the groups excommunicated by Ibn Taymiyya.[31] He also excommunicated anyone who places an intermediary between themselves and God and calls upon them, anyone who abandons one of the Pillars of Islam such as Prayer, anyone who opposes Mutawatir and Ijma', anyone resembling the infidels, anyone who does not excommunicate Jews and Christians, and anyone seeking help (Istighatha) from the saints (awliyāʾ).[32]
  • Visiting Graves and Shrines: Citing certain hadiths, Ibn Taymiyya considers the visitation of graves, shrines, and holy places, as well as constructing buildings over these sites, to be an innovation.[33] In Minhaj al-sunna, he criticized the Shi'a for building shrines over the graves of the Imams (a).[34]
  • Cursing Yazid: Although Ibn Taymiyya considered cursing the killers of Imam al-Husayn (a) to be permissible,[35] he did not consider Yazid's involvement in the killing of Imam al-Husayn (a) to be proven.[36] Furthermore, Ibn Taymiyya considered cursing a tyrant Fasiq to be permissible,[37] but he did not consider it proven that Yazid was a fasiq or a tyrant;[38] for this reason, he did not consider cursing him permissible.[39]

Jurisprudential Views

In jurisprudence, Ibn Taymiyya followed the Hanbali school but adopted opinions independent of all Islamic schools.[40] He was known for issuing singular (shādh) and rare fatwas, a characteristic that caused many protests among contemporary scholars and jurists and led to his imprisonment several times.[41] Some of his singular fatwas are as follows:

  1. Regarding the shortened prayer for a traveler, he did not differentiate between short and long journeys, basing this on the absolute nature of verse 43 of Qur'an 4 and the Sunna of the Messenger of God (s).[42]
  2. Regarding Divorce, contrary to other Sunni scholars, he believed that a divorce pronounced with the word "three" (triple divorce in one sitting) counts as only one divorce, and swearing an oath by Divorce does not result in the occurrence of divorce. He also did not consider tahlil (marrying a divorced woman to make her lawful for her first husband) permissible, regarding it as a legal trick (Hila shar'iyya).[43]

Approach to Hadith

Ibn Taymiyya's approach to Hadith followed his general method of giving precedence to transmission (naql) over reason ('aql). He placed great value on hadiths and considered only the traditionists (muḥaddithūn) to be people of insight, criticizing rationalists.[44] Regarding the relationship between reason and transmission, he considered valid only that reason which is compatible with the text (nass); thus, he rejected the statements of philosophers and theologians that conflicted with religious texts. In his view, reason has no value or validity without reliance on transmission.[45]

Despite his great emphasis on the validity of hadiths, it is said that he sometimes narrated a hadith incompletely or tampered with it if it was contrary to his inclination.[46]

Exegetical Approach

Reliance on the apparent meaning of the Qur'an and hadith-based exegesis was Ibn Taymiyya's method for interpreting the Quran. He considered interpretation without reference to hadiths to be forbidden. Ibn Taymiyya presented his method of interpretation in the book Muqaddima fi usul al-tafsir. According to his view, the Prophet (s) interpreted the entire Quran for the Sahaba, and the Tabi'un collected those interpretations through narration from the Sahaba. Based on Ibn Taymiyya's method, the Qur'an is first interpreted by the Qur'an; in the next stage, one must refer to the Prophetic Sunna, and in the absence of the Sunna, to the sayings of the Sahaba, and finally to the interpretations of the Tabi'un.[47]

Critique of Philosophers

Ibn Taymiyya divided philosophers into three groups:

  • Dahriyyun: Those who consider the world to be eternal (azali) and do not conceive of a manager and creator for it.
  • Tabi'iyyun: Those who focus mostly on the natural world and deny the Hereafter.
  • Ilahiyyun: Early philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina who believe in the eternity of the world.[48]

Ibn Taymiyya also declared takfīr on philosophers for several reasons:

Political Approach

Ibn Taymiyya's political approach was a function of his views on the backwardness and weakness of the Muslim world and the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate due to the invasion of the Mongols and Crusaders, each of whom had occupied part of the Islamic lands. Ibn Taymiyya considered the problems of the Islamic world to be due to sectarianism and saw the way out of the backwardness of Muslims in setting aside sectarianism and engaging in Jihad. In his view, Jihad is superior to all acts of Worship and Islamic rulings, including Prayer, Fasting, and Hajj, and the true characteristic of a Muslim human being is manifested not in individual asceticism and piety, but in Jihad. According to Ibn Taymiyya, those who participate in Jihad are victorious even if they are martyred, and if Muslims do not participate in Jihad, they will become infidels.[50]

Other Opinions

Some of Ibn Taymiyya's other opinions are as follows:

Regarding Ahl al-Bayt (a)

Ibn Taymiyya regards love for the Ahl al‑Bayt (a) as obligatory, affirms the imamate for them, and considers reviling and cursing them as instances of oppression.[51] He introduces Imam Ali (a) as the best of Muslims after the three Caliphs and believes that the most learned and virtuous of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) after the Prophet (s) is Ali b. Abi Talib. He enumerates many good qualities for Imam Ali (a), including Justice, zuhd, and truthfulness,[52] and believes that he was martyred and will dwell in Paradise.[53] However, he considered some of the hadiths and reports narrated regarding the virtues of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) to be flawed and fabricated. Accordingly, Ibn Taymiyya believes that Imam Ali (a) acted contrary to the Quranic text in seventeen instances, and his wars were not for the sake of religion, but for worldly gain and leadership.[54]

Ibn Taymiyya believes that although Imam al-Husayn (a) was martyred oppressively, his uprising lacked worldly and otherworldly benefit. He introduces the Ashura uprising as a cause for many seditions in the Muslim Umma and contrary to the conduct of the Prophet (s). Conversely, he absolved Yazid of ordering the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (a) and believed that the Imam's head was not taken to Yazid, but was carried to Ibn Ziyad.[55]

Justice of the Sahaba

Ibn Taymiyya considers himself a follower of the Salaf Sahaba, the Tabi'un, and the great traditionists. In his opinion, the Salaf understood religious texts better than later scholars and theologians because they were the closest people to the Prophet (s), and the Qur'an and Sunna were revealed in their language and understanding.[56] He also considers the Justice of Sahaba to be a religious axiom and regards its denier as a Kafir. According to Ibn Taymiyya's basis, the criterion for being a Companion is companionship with the Prophet (s), and there is no difference between a little or a lot of this companionship.[57]

Despite believing in the justice of the Sahaba, Ibn Taymiyya criticized even the Rashidun Caliphs in some cases. However, in the book al-'Aqida al-wasitiyya, referring to the action of Talha and al-Zubayr in opposing Imam Ali (a), he considered those who raise objections against the Caliphate of the Rashidun Caliphs to be worse than donkeys.[58] According to Ibn Taymiyya, the First Caliph and the Second Caliph transgressed the Prophet's words and engaged in Ijtihad Against Nass, and the Third Caliph was fond of wealth.[59]

Regarding Shi'as

Ibn Taymiyya introduced the Shi'a as the source of all seditions in the Muslim world and considered war against them more important than war against the Khawarij and the Mongols. Because of this belief, he volunteered to fight alongside the Mongols against the Druze Shi'as in the Keserwan region.[60] He divides Shi'as into three categories:

In a comparison between Shi'as and Jews, Ibn Taymiyya listed several similarities between them, including deviation from the Qibla, not believing in 'idda (waiting period) for a woman who is divorced or whose husband dies, believing that God has made fifty prayers obligatory, saying "al-Sām 'alaykum" (Death be upon you), and enmity with Gabriel.[64]

Impact on Salafi Takfiri Groups

Ibn Taymiyya is considered the leader[65] and founder of Salafism,[66] and his views are regarded as paving the way for fundamentalist movements and Salafi jihadist forces[67] emerging in Islamic society;[68] to the extent that he has been described as the spiritual father of Sunni Islamic extremism.[69]

Wahhabism, the Muslim Brotherhood, and Jihadi Salafism are among the groups that follow Salafi jurisprudence (as opposed to the other four Sunni schools.[70] Also, the reproduction of Ibn Taymiyya's fundamentalist ideas has appeared in the form of groups such as the Taliban, Al-Qa'ida, and ISIS,[71] which have become known as Takfiri Salafis by excommunicating a large part of Muslims.[72]

Extremism and Salafism have intellectually utilized the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya and disciples of his school, such as Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahhab, Abu l-A'la Mawdudi, and Sayyid Qutb.[73] Upon seizing power, relying on Ibn Taymiyya's teachings, they have engaged in the massacre of Muslims[74] and the destruction of the shrines of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) and the Prophet's Companions.[75]

It is said that religious fundamentalism, in facing the crises of the modern world, has called Muslims towards extremism by relying on Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas and specific interpretations of religious texts.[76]

In the View of Others

Many Sunni scholars and writers have spoken about Ibn Taymiyya and hold different views regarding him. Some have ranked him above the Imams of the four Sunni schools, giving him titles such as Shaykh al-Islam, the unique one of the age, Allama, Faqih, Mufassir,[77] the most knowledgeable person of his time in religious sciences,[78] and the greatest of scholars.[79].[80] Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti referred to him as Shaykh al-Islam, Allama, Faqih, a prominent exegete, and a scholar who was an ascetic and unique in his time.[81]

In contrast, a large number of jurists and judges of the four Sunni schools have explicitly attributed disbelief, deviation, and innovation to him due to his beliefs, singular fatwas, and thoughts; including eighteen Sunni judges who ruled that Ibn Taymiyya is an infidel because he disparaged the Prophets.[82] Al-Shawkani (d. 1250/1834), a Salafi Sunni scholar, narrated that Muḥammad al-Bukhari (d. 841/1437), a Hanafi scholar, in addition to ruling on Ibn Taymiyya's takfīr, believed that anyone who calls Ibn Taymiyya "Shaykh al-Islam" is also an infidel.[83]

It is said that certain characteristics of Ibn Taymiyya played a role in the negative judgments of Sunni scholars about him and caused their aversion to his ideas and personality; characteristics such as irascibility, harshness, insulting the audience, not observing the etiquette of debate, and attributing error to predecessors;[84] a factor that also led to his imprisonment by the ruling of the judges of the four schools and his ban from issuing fatwas.[85]

Books in Critique of Ibn Taymiyya

Due to issuing singular (shādh) and rare fatwas and opinions, Ibn Taymiyya was criticized by many scholars of the four schools and Shi'a scholars, and books were compiled in his critique. Some of the most important books criticizing his thoughts are:

  1. Al-Durra al-mudiyya fi l-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya, written by Taqi al-Din 'Ali b. 'Abd al-Kafi al-Subki, d. 756/1355.
  2. Shifa al-saqam fi ziyarat khayr al-anam, written by Taqi al-Din 'Ali b. 'Abd al-Kafi al-Subki.
  3. Naqd al-ijtima' wa l-iftiraq fi masa'il al-ayman wa l-talaq, written by Taqi al-Din 'Ali b. 'Abd al-Kafi al-Subki.
  4. Al-Nazar al-muhaqqaq fi l-half bi-l-talaq al-mu'allaq, written by Taqi al-Din 'Ali b. 'Abd al-Kafi al-Subki.
  5. Al-I'tibar bi-baqa' al-jannat wa l-nar, written by Taqi al-Din 'Ali b. 'Abd al-Kafi al-Subki.
  6. Minhaj al-shari'a fi l-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya, by Muhammad Mahdi Kazimi Qazwini.
  7. Risala fi l-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya fi mas'alat al-talaq, Muhammad b. 'Ali Mazini Dimashqi, d. 721/1321.
  8. Risala fi l-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya fi mas'alat al-ziyara, Muhammad b. Ali Mazini.
  9. Al-Tuhfat al-mukhtara fi l-radd 'ala munkir al-ziyara, 'Umar b. al-Yaman Maliki, d. 734/1333-34.
  10. Al-Abhath al-jaliyya fi l-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya, Ahmad b. 'Uthman Turkamani Hanafi, d. 744/1343-44.
  11. Al-Radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya fī l-i'tiqadat, Muhammad b. Ahmad Farghani Dimashqi Hanafi, d. 867/1462-63.
  12. Al-Jawhar al-munazzam fi ziyarat al-qabr al-sharif al-nabawi al-mukarram, Ibn Hajar al-Haythami, d. 974/1566-67.
  13. Nazrat fi kitab Minhaj al-sunna al-nabawiyya, written by Al-Allama al-Amini, which is taken from the book al-Ghadir, published independently, and critiques Ibn Taymiyya's views in Minhaj al-sunna al-nabawiyya.[86]

Congresses and Scientific Meetings

In 1408/1987, a congress was held at the Salafi University of Benares, India, in honor of Ibn Taymiyya, where about 50 papers introducing and praising Ibn Taymiyya were presented and published in a collection titled Buhuth al-nadwa al-'alamiyya 'an Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyya wa a'malihi al-khalida. Meetings[87] and scientific chairs[88] have also been held to refute various views of Ibn Taymiyya.

Notes

  1. ↑ Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wa l-nihaya, vol. 13, p. 241.
  2. ↑ Abd al-Hamid, Ibn Taymiyya hayatuhu wa aqaiduhu, p. 56.
  3. ↑ Zaryab, "Ibn Taymiyya", vol. 3, p. 172.
  4. ↑ Dukhi, Manhaj Ibn Taymiyya fi l-tawhid, p. 29.
  5. ↑ Zaryab, "Ibn Taymiyya", vol. 3, p. 173, 177.
  6. ↑ Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wa l-nihaya, vol. 13, p. 343; vol. 14, p. 4.
  7. ↑ Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wa l-nihaya, vol. 13, p. 343; vol. 14, p. 38.
  8. ↑ Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wa l-nihaya, vol. 13, p. 343; vol. 14, p. 135.
  9. ↑ Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, vol. 14, pp. 137-138; Ibn Shākir, Fawāt al-wafayāt, vol. 1, p. 74.
  10. ↑ Badr al-Dīn al-ʿAynī, ʿAqd al-jumān, vol. 1, p. 288.
  11. ↑ Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, vol. 1, p. 2.
  12. ↑ al-Mizzī, Tahdhīb al-kamāl, vol. 1, p. 18.
  13. ↑ Abū Zayd, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya: ḥayātuhu wa āthāruh, p. 178.
  14. ↑ Ibn Shakir, Fawat al-wafayat, vol. 1, pp. 75-80.
  15. ↑ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Asma muallifat Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyya.
  16. ↑ Bahrāmī, Bunyān-i takfīr, p. 41.
  17. ↑ Ṭabasī, "Gūnah-shināsī-yi mawāḍiʿ-i āthār-i maktūb...".
  18. ↑ Ṭabasī, "Gūnah-shināsī-yi mawāḍiʿ-i āthār-i maktūb...", p. 9.
  19. ↑ Ṭabasī, "Gūnah-shināsī-yi mawāḍiʿ-i āthār-i maktūb...", pp. 7-8.
  20. ↑ Ibn Shākir, Fawāt al-wafayāt, vol. 1, p. 76.
  21. ↑ Rāwandī, Tārīkh-i ijtimāʿī-yi Īrān, vol. 10, p. 202.
  22. ↑ Majmūʿa maqālāt-i ham-andīshī-yi ziyārat, p. 342.
  23. ↑ Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, vol. 14, p. 37.
  24. ↑ Bori, "The Collection and Edition of Ibn Taymiyyah's Works...", p. 52–54.
  25. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 1, p. 160.
  26. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 1, p. 45; Subḥānī, Farhang-i ʿaqāʾid wa madhāhib-i Islāmī, vol. 1, pp. 21-22.
  27. ↑ Zaryāb, "Ibn Taymiyya", vol. 3, p. 179.
  28. ↑ al-ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Kashf al-murād, pp. 296-297; Riḍwānī, Shīʿa-shināsī wa pāsukh bi shubuhāt, vol. 1, p. 217.
  29. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 1, pp. 148-149.
  30. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 1, p. 106.
  31. ↑ al-Mashʿabī, Manhaj Ibn Taymiyya fī masʾalat al-takfīr, pp. 351-463.
  32. ↑ Riḍwānī, Wahhābiyān-i takfīrī, pp. 114-122.
  33. ↑ al-Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 2, p. 88, bāb mā yukrah min ittikhādh al-masājid ʿalā l-qubūr, ḥ. 1330.
  34. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 1, p. 131.
  35. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 4, p. 478.
  36. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Raʾs al-Ḥusayn, p. 207.
  37. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 4, p. 571.
  38. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 4, p. 572.
  39. ↑ Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Radd ʿalā l-mutaʿaṣṣib al-ʿanīd, introduction, p. 17.
  40. ↑ Zaryāb, "Ibn Taymiyya", vol. 3, p. 172.
  41. ↑ Zaryāb, "Ibn Taymiyya", vol. 3, p. 192.
  42. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-rasāʾil wa l-masāʾil, vol. 1, p. 243.
  43. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 3, pp. 79-80.
  44. ↑ Zaryāb, "Ibn Taymiyya", p. 178.
  45. ↑ Abū Zahra, Ibn Taymiyya ḥayātuhu wa ʿaṣruh, pp. 183-185.
  46. ↑ ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd, Ibn Taymiyya fī ṣūratihi al-ḥaqīqiyya, pp. 13, 67-72.
  47. ↑ Khalīl Baraka, Ibn Taymiyya wa juhūduhu fī l-tafsīr, pp. 127-140.
  48. ↑ al-Mashʿabī, Manhaj Ibn Taymiyya fī masʾalat al-takfīr, pp. 351-352.
  49. ↑ al-Mashʿabī, Manhaj Ibn Taymiyya fī masʾalat al-takfīr, pp. 353-363.
  50. ↑ Mahdī Bakhshī, "Jihād; az Ibn Taymiyya tā Bin Lādin", pp. 172-173.
  51. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 4, p. 56.
  52. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 6, p. 330; vol. 7, p. 88, 489.
  53. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 4, p. 431.
  54. ↑ Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, al-Durar al-kāmina, vol. 1, p. 181.
  55. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 1, p. 530.
  56. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, "al-ʿAqīda al-Ḥamawiyya al-kubrā", vol. 1, pp. 427-429.
  57. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, al-Ṣārim al-maslūl ʿalā shātim al-rasūl, p. 107.
  58. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭiyya, p. 118.
  59. ↑ Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, al-Durar al-kāmina, vol. 1, pp. 179-181; Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 20, p. 251.
  60. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 28, pp. 468-489.
  61. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Majmūʿat al-fatāwā, vol. 28, p. 468.
  62. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, al-Ṣārim al-maslūl ʿalā shātim al-rasūl, p. 586.
  63. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 1, p. 35.
  64. ↑ Ibn Taymiyya, Minhāj al-sunna, vol. 1, p. 25.
  65. ↑ Luṭfī, "Barrasī-yi taʾthīrāt-i andīshah-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 41.
  66. ↑ Muḥīṭī and Farmāniyān, "Fiqh-i Salafiyya...", p. 121.
  67. ↑ ʿAlīpūr et al., "Taʾthīr-i andīshah-hā-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 43.
  68. ↑ Luṭfī, "Barrasī-yi taʾthīrāt-i andīshah-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 59.
  69. ↑ ʿAlīpūr et al., "Taʾthīr-i andīshah-hā-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 43.
  70. ↑ Muḥīṭī and Farmāniyān, "Fiqh-i Salafiyya...", pp. 125-126.
  71. ↑ ʿAlīpūr et al., "Taʾthīr-i andīshah-hā-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 43.
  72. ↑ Pūrḥasan and Sayfī, "Taqābul-i neosalfī-hā bā Shīʿayān...", pp. 17-18.
  73. ↑ Mahdī Bakhshī, "Jihād az Ibn Taymiyya tā Bin Lādin", pp. 172-174.
  74. ↑ Subḥānī, Buḥūth fī l-milal wa l-niḥal, p. 587.
  75. ↑ al-Amīn, Kashf al-irtiyāb, p. 52.
  76. ↑ ʿAlīpūr et al., "Taʾthīr-i andīshah-hā-yi Ibn Taymiyya...", p. 43.
  77. ↑ Ibn Shākir, Fawāt al-wafayāt, vol. 1, p. 74.
  78. ↑ al-Ḥajwī, al-Fikr al-sāmī, vol. 2, p. 362.
  79. ↑ Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāya wa l-nihāya, vol. 14, p. 156.
  80. ↑ Abū l-Faraj ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad al-Baghdādī al-Ḥanbalī says: "I swear between the Rukn and Maqam that I have not seen anyone like him," and writing 20 pages in his praise, says: "He was so strong in hadith that it can be said: any hadith that Ibn Taymiyya does not know is not a hadith" (al-Baghdādī, al-Dhayl ʿalā ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila, vol. 4, p. 391).
  81. ↑ al-Suyūṭī, Ṭabaqāt al-ḥuffāẓ, p. 520.
  82. ↑ al-Baghdādī, al-Dhayl ʿalā ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila, vol. 4, p. 401.
  83. ↑ al-Shawkānī, al-Badr al-ṭāliʿ, vol. 2, p. 262.
  84. ↑ al-Ḥajwī, al-Fikr al-sāmī, vol. 2, pp. 363-364.
  85. ↑ Ibn Abī Yaʿlā, Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila, vol. 4, pp. 394, 401.
  86. ↑ "Nigāhī gudharā bi zindagī-yi Ibn Taymiyya"; "Naẓra fī kitāb Minhāj al-sunna al-nabawiyya"; al-Amīnī, Naẓra fī kitāb Minhāj al-sunna al-nabawiyya, pp. 20-21.
  87. ↑ "Nashast-i naqd wa barrasī-yi naẓariyya-yi khilāfat..."; "Ibn Taymiyya hīch āwardah-ī barā-yi andīshah-yi khilāfat nadārad".
  88. ↑ "Kursī-yi ʿilmī tarwījī bā ʿunwān-i naqd wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-i Ibn Taymiyya pīrāmūn-i shafāʿat"; "Kursī-yi ʿilmī tarwījī bāzkhānī-yi intiqādī-yi dalāyil-i Salafiyya...".

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