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Battles of the Prophet (s)

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The battles of the Prophet (s) after his migration to Medina were aimed at preserving the Islamic community and establishing an Islamic government, countering the aggression of the polytheists, and eliminating sedition. According to some researchers, all these battles were conducted due to the polytheists' violation of treaties or their military movements. Therefore, the claim by some Orientalists that the objectives of these battles were materialistic is incorrect and contrary to historical reports.

The battles in which the Prophet (s) participated are called Ghazwa, while those in which he (s) did not participate are called Sariyya. In historical reports, approximately 80 battles have been recorded for the Prophet (s), of which around 30 involved military engagements, with only five resulting in intense conflict. The total number of casualties—including both Muslim and non-Muslim—in all the Prophet's (s) battles is estimated to be between 900 and 1600 people.

The Qur'an refers to some battles, mentioning the names of a few. According to exegetes, the first command for Muslims to engage in battle was given with the revelation of Qur'an 22:39 or Qur'an 2:190. According to the Qur'an, God supported the Muslims in battles with groups of angels, instilling fear in the hearts of the enemies and creating tranquility in the hearts of the believers.

In battles, the Prophet (s) observed military principles and personally commanded decisive battles. He (s) observed human rights during warfare and prohibited killing women, children, and the elderly. Consulting with his companions, avoiding mass killings, and appointing a deputy in Medina are considered other aspects of the Prophet's (s) conduct in war.

In managing warfare, the Prophet (s) organized soldiers into five divisions: vanguard, center, right wing, left wing, and rear support. He (s) utilized various tactics, such as deception and psychological warfare. No Muslim was forced to participate in battle, and those who were weak or underage were prevented from joining.

Some women, such as Fatima al-Zahra (a), Umm Ayman, Umm 'Atiyya, and Umm 'Umara, participated in battles alongside men. They tended to the wounded, provided water to the fighters, prepared food, and collected and stored arrows.

The Prophet's (s) Objectives in Warfare

The Prophet (s) engaged in battles against the polytheists, Jews, and Romans[1] to counter their aggression, eliminate sedition, spread Islam, and establish an Islamic government,[2] as the enemies of the Prophet (s) were preventing the realization of an Islamic government.[3] It is said that considering the Prophet's (s) divine objectives in battles, in religious literature, the expression jihad in the way of God is used instead of the word "war".[4] According to some researchers, the Prophet (s) explained the causes, objectives, and principles of war to the Islamic army, and after that, he (s) would form a powerful military organization.[5]

However, most Orientalists have justified the Prophet's (s) battles as being for materialistic goals and in pursuit of political and economic dominance.[6]

However, they do not hold a unified view in explaining the Prophet's (s) objectives in battles and have mentioned goals such as obtaining spoils of war and livelihood, ambition, and revenge against opponents.[7] Researchers consider such claims incorrect and believe that historical documents refute such allegations.[8] Also, some other Orientalists believe that the Prophet (s) avoided war as much as possible and only fought, when necessary, in defense of Islam and Muslims.[9]

Ghazwas and Sariyyas

The painting Fateh Kheybar, oil on canvas, by Hasan Ruh al-Amin, 2017.
Main articles: Ghazwa and Sariyya

In books about Islamic history, the Prophet's (s) battles are divided into two categories: Ghazwa and Sariyya.[10] Battles in which the Prophet (s) personally participated and directly commanded are called Ghazwa, and battles in which the Prophet (s) did not participate but instead dispatched a group to a specific region under an appointed commander are called Sariyya.[11] However, some researchers believe that these definitions of Ghazwa and Sariyya are not entirely accurate. They argue that Ghazwas refer to the Prophet's (s) battles conducted openly, with many warriors and proper organization. In contrast, Sariyyas refer to the Prophet's (s) battles that were conducted covertly, with few warriors and without organization.[12]

These two definitions do not differ regarding the instances of Ghazwas and Sariyyas because, according to the latter definition, the Prophet (s) did not participate in operations carried out with few personnel and whose objective was harassment or reconnaissance.[13]

Statistics

According to historical reports, about 80 battles are recorded for the Prophet (s).[14] Based on a narration from Imam al-Hadi (a) cited in the book Tadhkirat al-Khawas, the total number of the Prophet's (s) battles was 82.[15] Of all the Ghazwas and Sariyyas, approximately 30 resulted in military confrontation, and the rest were without conflict.[16] Also, among the battles that led to military engagement, only five were significant and involved intense fighting.[17] Historians, based on various historical accounts, have estimated the total casualties - from both Muslims and non-Muslims - in all of the Prophet's (s) battles to be between 900 to 1,600 people,[18] with the number of Muslim martyrs being 317.[19]

Battles of the Prophet (s) in the Qur'an

Qur'an 3:123, in which the name of the Battle of Badr is mentioned.

In several surahs of the Qur'an, such as al-Baqarah, Al-i 'Imran, al-Nisa', al-Ma'ida, al-Anfal, al-Tawbah, al-Ahzab, al-Fath, al-Hashr, al-Saff, and al-'Adiyat, some of the battles of the Prophet (s) are referenced.[20] However, only the names of three battles - Badr[21], Khandaq[22], and Hunayn[23] - are explicitly mentioned in the Qur'an.[24] According to Shaykh Tusi, the author of al-Tibyan commentary on the Qur'an, with the revelation of Qur'an 22:39, the Muslims were commanded to fight for the first time.[25] However, according to 'Allama Tabataba'i, the author of al-Mizan commentary on the Qur'an, this command was given with the revelation of Qur'an 2:190.[26]

Helps from the Unseen

A painting of the angels assisting the Prophet (s) in the Battle of Badr.

According to the Qur'an's report, in some battles, God assisted the Prophet (s) with helps from the Unseen:

  • According to Qur'an 8:9-11, in the Battle of Badr, God supported the Islamic army with a group of angels, cast fear into the hearts of the enemies, and briefly put the Muslims into a light and peaceful sleep so that their spirits would be calmed and they would ultimately achieve victory.[27]
  • According to Qur'an 3:151, although the polytheists took advantage of the mistake of a group of Muslims in the Battle of Uhud and achieved victory and could have attacked Medina and eradicated Islam, they abandoned this plan due to the fear that God placed in their hearts.[28]
  • Based on Qur'an 33:9, in the Battle of Ahzab, the polytheists of Mecca and surrounding tribes united to attack Medina, kill the Prophet (s), and destroy Islam, but God helped the Muslims to achieve victory by sending an invisible army, wind, and storms.[29]
  • According to Qur'an 9:26, in the Battle of Hunayn, due to the arrogance of a group within the Islamic army, the polytheists initially gained victory. However, God suddenly sent down tranquility and peace upon the hearts of the believers so they could prepare for battle again and achieve victory.[30]

Were the Prophet's (s) Battles Defensive or Offensive Jihad?

According to some Islamic scholars, the Prophet (s) never initiated any war, and all battles occurred as a result of violations of treaties by the polytheists or their military actions.[31]

According to Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, offensive jihad is also a form of defense because just as defending the lives and lands of Muslims is obligatory, defending the rights of God is also obligatory.[32]

The Prophet's (s) Conduct in Wars

The Prophet (s) observed military principles in warfare.[33] He (s) emphasized military discipline, and no one was allowed to abandon their assigned post.[34] The Prophet (s) personally took command of major and decisive battles (such as Badr, Uhud, and Khandaq).[35]

According to what is mentioned in Nahj al-Balagha, during wars, the Prophet (s) would stand at the forefront of the battlefield, and Muslims would seek refuge in him during the hardships of war.[36] The Prophet (s) considered gathering intelligence about the enemy greatly important,[37] so he (s) appointed spies within the enemy's army and safeguarded his army's secrets from being disclosed.[38] The following are considered among the Prophet's (s) other methods during warfare:

  • Observing human rights: According to some researchers, the Prophet (s) tried to minimize casualties and property damage in wars.[39] He (s) prohibited mutilation of enemies, cutting down trees, and killing women, children, and the elderly in war.[40] Even if women and children participated in a battle against Muslims, he (s) still ordered soldiers to avoid killing them as much as possible.[41] According to some researchers, for the first time in the world, regulations concerning prisoners of war and civilians were written in Islam.[42]
  • Active diplomacy in war: To achieve greater success, alongside warfare, the Prophet (s) paid attention to active diplomacy. Therefore, political treaties were made with neutral powers to both prevent them from joining the main enemies and to utilize their resources to meet the needs of the Muslims.[43] In cases where the Prophet (s) saw negotiation and making peace with the enemy aligned with his objectives, he (s) would pursue peace. Otherwise, he (s) would refrain from negotiation.[44]
  • Formation of war council:[45] Such as forming a war council to decide between fighting inside or outside the city in the Battle of Uhud[46] and the Prophet's (s) consultation regarding digging the trench in the Battle of Ahzab.[47]
  • Appointing a deputy in Medina: Whenever the Prophet (s) left Medina, and in all battles, he (s) would appoint someone as his deputy.[48]
  • Forgiveness and magnanimity: In the conquest of Mecca, the Prophet (s) granted amnesty to the chiefs of Quraysh even though they had expelled him from his homeland and killed his relatives and companions.[49]
  • Avoiding mass killings: The Prophet (s) prohibited poisoning of cities.[50]

Participants in War

The Prophet (s) never forced any Muslim to join the army,[51] and although he (s) would purchase weapons from non-Muslims, he (s) did not utilize their manpower.[52] It is said that the age requirement for Muslims to participate in war was fifteen years,[53] and the Prophet (s) did not allow those under fifteen to participate in battles.[54] In cases where the war did not require many participants, the Prophet (s) would not declare general mobilization; however, in situations where the Islamic army needed more forces, he (s) would call for a general mobilization, inviting everyone to participate in the war, except for those who were unable.[55]

However, he (s) never forced anyone to participate in war.[56] The Prophet (s) also prevented those who did not have combat capability from participating in battles.[57] According to the Bay'at al-Harb treaty, protecting the Prophet's (s) life in Medina was the responsibility of the people there, and they had no duty in the battles fought by the Prophet (s) outside the city.[58] Based on this, until the Battle of Badr, all of the Prophet's (s) soldiers were from the Ansars [Helpers], but when the Battle of Badr began, the Immigrants expressed their desire to participate in battles and joined the battles.[59]

Participation of Women in War

Women, like men, were present in the Prophet's (s) battles.[60] Women carried out the tasks of treating the wounded, delivering water to the fighters, preparing food, collecting and maintaining arrows and other weapons, and transporting the injured and martyrs to the city.[61] Some women, like Ka'iba bint Sa'd and Rafida Ansariyya, had special tents where the wounded and sick in battle would be transferred to their tents for treatment.[62]

In the Battle of Khaybar, six women were present in the Prophet's (s) army.[63] Fourteen women participated in the battle of Uhud, who treated the wounded and provided water and food to the soldiers.[64] Among these women were Lady Fatima Zahra (a), 'Ayisha, and Umm Ayman.[65] Lady Fatima Zahra (a), in the Battle of Uhud, with the help of Imam 'Ali (a), would bind the Prophet's (s) wounds.[66] Umm Ayman was present in the battles of Uhud and Khaybar.[67] Umm 'Atiyya participated in many battles.[68] According to a report narrated from her, she participated in seven battles.[69] Rabi' bint Mu'awwadh was also among the women who accompanied the Prophet (s) in battles.[70] Umm 'Amara also participated in various battles, including Uhud, Khaybar, and Hunayn, and fought alongside men.[71] She was wounded in various battles, and in the Battle of Uhud, when the polytheists attacked the Prophet (s), she defended the Prophet (s) with her sword.[72]

Tactics

An image of how armies were organized in early Islam.

[73]

In some battles, such as the Battle of Khaybar,[74] the Prophet (s) used the "Khamis" arrangement to structure his army.[75] In this arrangement, the forces would take battle formation into five divisions: the vanguard, the center, the right wing, the left wing, and the rear support.[76] One of the Prophet's tactics in wars was to begin the battle on enemy territory to direct all the damages of war at the enemy.[77] In some cases, the Islamic army would move through unconventional routes so that the enemy reconnaissance would not become aware of their objectives.[78] In some instances, upon hearing of enemy forces gathering to attack the Muslims, the Prophet (s) would launch surprise attacks to disperse their gatherings and prevent larger wars from breaking out.[79]

Deception tactics were another method the Prophet (s) employed in war.[80] In the Battle of Khaybar, the Prophet (s) first moved the army toward Ghatfan, deploying a small group toward them, while he (s) himself changed direction toward Khaybar with the main army forces. With this strategy, both the people of Ghatfan and Khaybar were caught off guard and were prevented from helping each other.[81] In some battles, psychological warfare was used to thwart the enemy.[82] For example, in the Battle of Hamra' al-Asad, fires were lit in 500 locations at night so that enemies would become intimidated upon seeing the flames;[83] similarly, in the conquest of Mecca, the Prophet (s) instructed Abbas b. Abd al-Muttalib to take Abu Sufyan to the edge of a valley to observe the great mass of Muslims[84] and abandon any thought of resistance, leading to the conquest of Mecca without war.[85] The Prophet (s) often used the element of surprise in various battles. For example, he (s) surprised the Bani Qurayza during their conflict, the people of Khaybar in the location of engagement, and the allied polytheist in the technique of engagement.[86]

War Resources and Equipment

After the Islamic government gained strength, the Prophet (s) personally took responsibility for providing war resources and equipment; however, in the first years after the Prophet's (s) migration to Medina, the necessary resources and equipment for war battles were provided by the soldiers, wealthy individuals, and the people.[87] For example, the Prophet (s) ordered Sa'd b. Zayd to accompany the captives of Bani Qurayza to Najd to acquire horses and weapons for the Islamic army.[88] Also, in the Battle of Tabuk, when some companions asked the Prophet (s) to provide them with mounts and war provisions so they would not miss the virtue of jihad, the Prophet (s) ordered that their request be fulfilled.[89]

The Prophet (s) had written treaties with various tribes so that he (s) could purchase weapons and military supplies from them.[90] Additionally, the Prophet (s) would sometimes borrow equipment needed for his army from certain tribes.[91] In some battles, Muslims used more effective weapons such as catapults[92] and dabbaba (a type of war chariot used to destroy walls[93]).[94]


Notes

  1. ↑ Qāʾidān, Sāzmāndihī Jangī dar ghazawāt-i ʿaṣr-i Payāmbar, p. 75.
  2. ↑ Muʿāwinat-i Pazhūhishī Muʾassisa Tanẓīm wa Nashr-i ʾĀthār-i Imām Khomeinī, Sīmā-yi Maʿṣūmīn dar andīsha-yi Imām Khomeinī, p. 132.
  3. ↑ Muʿāwinat-i Pazhūhishī Muʾassisa Tanẓīm wa Nashr-i ʾĀthār-i Imām Khomeinī, Sīmā-yi Maʿṣūmīn dar andīsha-yi Imām Khomeinī, p. 132.
  4. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 35.
  5. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 7.
  6. ↑ ʿAbd al-Muḥammadī & Akbarī, Naqd wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-i mustashriqān darbāra-yi ahdāf-i ghazawāt wa sarāyā-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 7.
  7. ↑ ʿAbd al-Muḥammadī & Akbarī, Naqd wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-i mustashriqān darbāra-yi ahdāf-i ghazawāt wa sarāyā-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 8-12.
  8. ↑ ʿAbd al-Muḥammadī & Akbarī, Naqd wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-i mustashriqān darbāra-yi ahdāf-i ghazawāt wa sarāyā-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 17-29.
  9. ↑ ʿAbd al-Muḥammadī & Akbarī, Naqd wa barrasī-yi dīdgāh-i mustashriqān darbāra-yi ahdāf-i ghazawāt wa sarāyā-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 13-14.
  10. ↑ Subḥānī, Farāzhāʾī az tārīkh-i Payāmbar-i Islām, p. 216.
  11. ↑ Subḥānī, Farāzhāʾī az tārīkh-i Payāmbar-i Islām, p. 216.
  12. ↑ Qāʾidān, Sāzmāndihī-yi jangī dar ghazawāt-i ʿaṣr-i Payāmbar, p. 79-80.
  13. ↑ Qāʾidān, Sāzmāndihī-yi jangī dar ghazawāt-i ʿaṣr-i Payāmbar, p. 80.
  14. ↑ Ṣādiqī, Uṣūl-i ḥuqūq-i jang dar sīra-yi nabawī, p. 137.
  15. ↑ Sibṭ b. al-Jawzī, Tadhkirat al-khawāṣṣ, p. 322.
  16. ↑ ʿAlīkhānī, Taḥlīl-i sīyāsī-yi janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram Rāhburdī barā-yi imrūz, p. 71.
  17. ↑ ʿAlīkhānī, Taḥlīl-i sīyāsī-yi janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram rāhburdī barā-yi imrūz, p. 71.
  18. ↑ Naṣīrī, Tārikh-i Payāmbar-i Islām, p. 76.
  19. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 15.
  20. ↑ Misbāḥ Yazdī, Jang wa jahād dar Qurʾān, p. 118.
  21. ↑ Qurʾān 3:123.
  22. ↑ Qurʾān 33:22.
  23. ↑ Qurʾān 9:25.
  24. ↑ Misbāḥ Yazdī, Jang wa jahād dar Qurʾān, p. 117.
  25. ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, vol. 7, p. 123.
  26. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 2, p. 60.
  27. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 7, p. 103-107.
  28. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 3, p. 125-126; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 4, p. 43.
  29. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 17, p. 216-218.
  30. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i nimūna, vol. 7, p. 338-341.
  31. ↑ Muntaẓirī, Ḥukūmat-i dīnī wa ḥuqūq-i insān, p. 68-69; Ṣāliḥī Najafābādī, Jahād dar Islām, p. 34.
  32. ↑ Misbāḥ Yazdī, Jang wa jahād dar Qurʾān, p. 148-151.
  33. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 120.
  34. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 120.
  35. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 118.
  36. ↑ Sayyid Raḍī, Nahj al-balāgha, p. 520.
  37. ↑ Watar, Fann al-ḥarb al-Islāmī fī ʿahd al-Rasūl (s), p. 143.
  38. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 120.
  39. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 119.
  40. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 5, p. 27.
  41. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 5, p. 29.
  42. ↑ Hūshyār, Bāztāb-i janghā-yi Payāmbar (s) dar kitābhā-yi tārikh-i Islām-i Irān az sāl-i 1358 Sh tā kunūn, p. 82.
  43. ↑ Jalīlī, Sīyāsat-i khārijī-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 105-106.
  44. ↑ Jalīlī, Sīyāsat-i khārijī-yi Payāmbar (s), p. 112-114.
  45. ↑ Taqizādi Akbarī, Rawish-i farmāndihī-yi Payāmbar-i Aʿẓam (s), p. 15.
  46. ↑ Wāqidī, al-Maghāzī, vol. 1, p. 209-211.
  47. ↑ Qummī, Tafsīr al-Qummī, vol. 1, p. 177.
  48. ↑ ʿAbd al-Shāfī, al-Sīrat al-Nabawīyya wa al-Tārīkh al-Islāmī, p. 153.
  49. ↑ Taqizādi Akbarī, Rawish-i farmāndihī-yi Payāmbar-i Aʿẓam (s), p. 9.
  50. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 5, p. 28.
  51. ↑ Uṣūl-i ḥuqūq-i jang dar sīra-yi nabawī, p. 129.
  52. ↑ Ṣādiqī, Uṣūl-i ḥuqūq-i jang dar sīra-yi nabawī, p. 127.
  53. ↑ Ṣādiqī, Uṣūl-i ḥuqūq-i jang dar sīra-yi nabawī, p. 131.
  54. ↑ Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-kubrā, vol. 9, p. 37.
  55. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 13.
  56. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi Niẓāmī, p. 15.
  57. ↑ Markaz-i Taḥqīqāt-i Sipāh, Janghā-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s), p. 120.
  58. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī'', p. 12.
  59. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 12.
  60. ↑ Jalālī Kundurī, Ḥuzūr-i niẓāmī zanān dar ṣadr-i Islām, p. 108.
  61. ↑ Jalālī Kundurī, Ḥuzūr-i niẓāmī zanān dar ṣadr-i Islām, p. 108; Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 4, p. 24.
  62. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, p. 226-227; Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb, vol. 4, p. 1838; Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, al-Iṣāba, vol. 8, p. 135-136.
  63. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī, Usd al-ghāba, vol. 6, p. 334.
  64. ↑ Wāqidī, al-Maghāzī, vol. 1, p. 249-250.
  65. ↑ Wāqidī, al-Maghāzī, vol. 1, p. 249-250.
  66. ↑ Ibn Ḥajjāj, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1416.
  67. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, p. 180.
  68. ↑ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Istīʿāb, vol. 4, p. 1947.
  69. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, p. 333.
  70. ↑ Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Muntaẓam, vol. 5, p. 137; Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, al-Iṣāba, vol. 8, p. 132-133.
  71. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, p. 303-305.
  72. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, p. 303.
  73. ↑ Dhiylābī, Jang, az ṣadr-i Islām tā pāyān-i khilāfat-i ʿAbbāsī, p. 63.
  74. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 2, p. 81.
  75. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 26.
  76. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 26.
  77. ↑ Khaṭāb, al-Rasūl al-Qāʾid, p. 208.
  78. ↑ Khaṭāb, al-Rasūl al-Qāʾid, p. 203.
  79. ↑ Taqizādi Akbarī, Rawish-i farmāndihī-yi Payāmbar-i Aʿẓam (s), p. 17-18.
  80. ↑ Taqizādi Akbarī, Rawish-i farmāndihī-yi Payāmbar-i Aʿẓam (s), p. 17-18.
  81. ↑ Khaṭāb, al-Rasūl al-Qāʾid, p. 452-453.
  82. ↑ Taqizādi Akbarī, Rawish-i farmāndihī-yi Payāmbar-i Aʿẓam (s), p. 19.
  83. ↑ Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, ʿUyūn al-athar, vol. 2, p. 54.
  84. ↑ Ibn Hishām, al-Sīra al-nabawīyya, vol. 2, p. 403-404.
  85. ↑ Khaṭāb, al-Rasūl al-Qāʾid, p. 337.
  86. ↑ Fīrūzī & Ḥusaynī, ahammīyyat-i aṣl-i ghāfilgīrī dar janghā-yi Payāmbar-i akram (s) wa kārburd-i ān dar ʿasr-i ḥāḍir, p. 196-200.
  87. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 16-17.
  88. ↑ Bayhaqī, Dalāʾil al-nubuwwa, vol. 4, p. 24.
  89. ↑ Wāqidī, al-Maghāzī, vol. 3, p. 994.
  90. ↑ Qāʾidān, Mudīrīyat wa rahbarī-yi Payāmbar-i Akram (s) dar ʿarṣahā-yi niẓāmī, p. 18; Balādhurī, Futūḥ al-buldān, p. 71; Maqrizī, Imtāʿ al-asmāʾ, vol. 9, p. 367.
  91. ↑ Ibn Saʿd, al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 1, p. 220.
  92. ↑ Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī, Usd al-ghāba, vol. 1, p. 30.
  93. ↑ Ṣāliḥī Shāmī, Subul al-hudā, vol. 6, p. 210.
  94. ↑ Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. Muʿjam al-buldān, vol. 4, p. 12.

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