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Kashf and Shuhud (unveiling and witnessing) denotes a mode of perception regarding truths and unseen realities. From the perspective of mystics, it supersedes conventional epistemological methods, such as rational reasoning and sensory experience, by offering an unmediated apprehension of reality. Various Qur'anic verses, including those describing Prophet Abraham's (a) vision of the malakūt (celestial dominion) and the verses of Mi'raj, allude to this phenomenon. Numerous accounts from Muslim mystics delineate the categories and gradations of kashf and shuhud, prominently featuring the distinction between divine and satanic witnessing.

Muslim mystics posit that the validity of a mukāshafa (unveiling) is contingent upon its conformity with the Shari'a, rational principles, and the unveiling of the Perfect Human. Scholars comparing wahi and mukāshafa distinguish the former by characteristics such as exclusivity, clarity, and immunity from error.

Mystics maintain that kashf and shuhud result from the purification of the soul. Furthermore, this experience is not exclusive to Islam; it is also present in other traditions such as Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.

The Superior Type of Perception

In Islamic mysticism, kashf and shuhud are regarded as the superior form of perception, for it is only through this mode that reality is apprehended directly and without mediation.[1] Muslim mystics argue that this perceptual mode constitutes the basis and foundation for all other types of knowledge.[2]

'Allama Tabataba'i, in his work Shi'a in Islam, identifies kashf and shuhud as one of the distinct methodologies of Shi'a religious thought.[3] He further posits that every divine religion and sect contains followers who have lived mystically and traversed the path of unveiling and witnessing.[4]

Within Islamic philosophy, sages of the Illuminationist school declined to limit philosophical methodology to rational demonstration alone, employing intuitive methods to structure their philosophical systems.[5] Similarly, Mulla Sadra, the founder of Transcendent Philosophy, prioritizes kashf and shuhud over the path of 'aql (intellect) and demonstration regarding the cognition of truths.[6]

Kashf and Shuhud in the Qur'an

Exegetes interpret various verses of the Holy Qur'an as pertaining to the concept of kashf and shuhud, including the following instances:

Verse Number Surah Explanation Interpretation of Commentators
75 al-An'am Revealing the malakūt (celestial dominion) of the heavens and the earth to Prophet Abraham (a) Some commentators argue that perceiving the malakūt of the heavens is impossible via the physical eye or rational reasoning; rather, God presented these truths to Abraham (a) through inner witnessing.[7]
105 al-Tawba Observation of deeds by God, the Prophet (s), and the believers Muhammad Taqi Fa'ali, a Shi'a researcher, suggests that the rule of context (waḥdat al-siyāq) indicates that the observation by the Prophet (s) and believers is of the same genus as God's observation: not sensory or rational awareness, but a form of esoteric and unseen observation of truths.[8]
2–10 al-Najm The witnessing of the Prophet (s) during Mi'raj According to Nasir Makarim Shirazi, these verses refer to Liqāʾ Allāh (the meeting with God), which is unattainable except through the inner eye.[9]
5–6 al-Takathur The observation of Hell 'Allama Tabataba'i holds that the apparent meaning involves witnessing Hell prior to the Day of Judgment, an observation made with the eye of the heart that results from faith and certainty.[10]
21–22 al-Furqan Seeing the angels Some commentators opine that seeing angels refers to witnessing them before Judgment and at the threshold of death.
94 Yusuf Jacob (a) perceiving the scent of Joseph (a) from a great distance Nasir Makarim Shirazi asserts that perceiving the scent of Joseph's (a) shirt from such a distance is impossible via ordinary olfaction and was achieved solely through mukāshafa.[11]
15–20 Maryam The appearance of the divine angel before Maryam (a) Some scholars categorize Maryam's (a) observation of the angel as a form of kashf and shuhud.[12]

Kashf and Shuhud in Narrations

Nasir Makarim Shirazi maintains that narrations treating kashf and shuhud as a valid source of knowledge reach the level of istifāḍa.[13] Numerous traditions address this subject, including:

Conceptology of Kashf and Shuhud

Muslim mystics define *kashf* as an existential awareness of unseen meanings and realities that exist beyond the natural realm.[19] They define *shuhud* as witnessing the Truth and being present in the company of the Witnessed.[20]

According to Shaykh al-Ishraq, *mukāshafa* is the acquisition of knowledge regarding a specific matter via thought, intuition, or unseen arrivals,[21] while *mushāhada* is the illumination of lights upon the soul such that it remains immune to the interference of illusion.[22]

Imam Khomeini defines *shuhud* as presential witnessing with the eye of the heart.[23] He describes *kashf* as a light appearing in the heart following its purification from unpleasant attributes; through this light, true knowledge of the Essence, Names, Attributes, Divine acts, and their wisdom is attained.[24]

While most mystics use *mushāhada* and *mukāshafa* interchangeably, some, such as Khwaja 'Abd Allah al-Ansari, regard *shuhud* as a higher station than *kashf*,[25] whereas others apply *mukāshafa* in a broader sense than *mushāhada*.[26]

The Reality of Kashf and Shuhud

Imam Khomeini characterizes kashf and shuhud as forms of knowledge by presence (*ʿilm ḥuḍūrī*), which is acquired not through theoretical cogitation or sensory experience, but as "tasteful" (*dhawqī*) knowledge gained by the direct observation of truths.[27] In this state, the results typically reached through the logical ordering of premises in acquired sciences are attained directly and without mediation.[28]

Some mystics interpret the reality of kashf and shuhud as the human inner being finding a path to the inner reality of the cosmos,[29] such that the human reality, like a mirror, receives and reflects the knowledge of God.[30]

Types of Kashf and Shuhud

Muslim mystics delineate various types and levels of kashf and shuhud, including:

  • Formal Unveiling (Kashf Ṣūrī): This unveiling is mediated through the five senses and results from divine manifestations.[31] Imam Khomeini categorizes this type into three divisions:
  1. Unveiling in sleep (contingent on the purity of the soul).
  2. Unveiling in wakefulness for wayfarers (*ahl al-sulūk*).
  3. Unveiling for Prophets (a), who observe truths at will.[32]
  • Spiritual Unveiling (Kashf Maʿnawī): An unveiling devoid of representation (*tamaththul*), wherein the human soul attains the truths of the intelligible world. This type is superior to Formal Unveiling. Imam Khomeini identifies its highest form as complete divine unveiling, which is exclusive to the Prophet (s).[33]
  • Divine and Satanic Unveiling: Kashf and shuhud may be either divine (*rabbānī*) or satanic.[34] Mulla Sadra attributes satanic kashf to a deficiency of intellect and corruption of the soul,[35] citing conformity with the Shari'a as the criterion for distinction.[36]

Criterion for the Validity of Mukashafa

To distinguish satanic from divine kashf, some Muslim mystics assert that the criterion for exoteric people is Shari'a rulings; for esoteric people, it is intellectual rulings illuminated by holy light; and for the elite, it is the complete conformity of their *mukāshafa* with the kashf of the Perfect Human.[37] In their view, the Holy Qur'an, being the complete kashf of Prophet Muhammad (s), serves as the ultimate standard.[38]

Others have proposed self-evidence (*badāha*) as the measure for evaluation, meaning that what the wayfarer observes with their entire being and with absolute clarity is the truth. Gnostics sometimes term this state *Bard al-Yaqīn* (the coolness of certainty).[39]

Levels of Kashf and Shuhud

Muslim mystics believe the levels of kashf and shuhud correspond to the levels of the reality being unveiled. Consequently, they regard the observation of high truths, such as the Muhammadan Reality and the First Intellect (*al-ṣādir al-awwal*), as superior forms of kashf, while placing the unveiling of elemental and compound realities at lower levels.[40] They maintain that lower levels of witnessing are susceptible to error due to the interference of imagination and illusion, whereas the higher levels are immune to such error.[41]

Regarding the types of divine manifestations, Imam Khomeini posits a hierarchy of witnessing: the lowest stage is witnessing the manifestation of Acts (*afʿālī*), followed by the manifestation of Names (*asmāʾī*) and Attributes, and finally, the witnessing of the manifestation of the Essence.[42]

He also argues that levels of kashf vary according to the capacity of the wayfarers' hearts; some hearts are the locus for the manifestation of outward beautiful Names (such as *Rabb*, the Lord), while others receive inward Names (such as *Mālik*, the Sovereign).[43]

Differences between Mukashafa and Wahi

Researchers highlight several major distinctions between *mukāshafa* and wahi:

  • *Wahi* is exclusive to the Perfect Human, whereas *mukāshafa* is attainable by others.[44]
  • *Wahi* inherently carries a reassuring demonstration for the recipient and their audience, yielding logical certainty. In contrast, mystical *mukāshafa* lacks such demonstration and entails no logical obligation for the audience to accept it, particularly since intuitive findings can appear contradictory.[45]
  • *Wahi* is clear, lucid, and distinct, whereas *mukāshafa* often resides in a halo of ambiguity and may not command obedience.[46]
  • There is no possibility of error in interpreting *wahi*. However, the interpretation of *mukāshafa*, even if the experience itself is real, is prone to error—analogous to seeing a figure in the dark and mistaking the homeowner for a thief.[47]
  • The *wahi* revealed to the prophets of God establishes Shari'a, whereas mystical *mukāshafāt* do not.[48]
  • *Mukāshafāt* are susceptible to suggestion and the influence of Satan, whereas *wahi*, originating from God, is immune to satanic interference.[49]

How and Conditions of Obtaining Mukashafa

It is widely asserted that Muslim mystics agree that kashf and shuhud are attained through practices such as mortification, purification, renouncing love of the world, lifting both dark and luminous veils, emerging from negligence, and directing one's entire being toward God. This process culminates in a state of connection and annihilation, leading to the manifestation of the Attributes and Essence of the Truth upon the mystic.[50] Conversely, the entanglement of the soul with human bonds,[51] the dominance of natural powers, the deviation of the spiritual temperament from moderation,[52] and veils of false belief[53] are considered impediments to attaining kashf and shuhud.

Kashf and Shuhud in Religions

The concept of witnessing unseen realities extends beyond Islam. For instance, Jewish theologians such as Maimonides discussed the vision of God in the context of Moses' (a) request to see God, a pivotal event referenced in both the Qur'an[54] and the Torah.[55][56] Similarly, Christian theologians like Augustine devoted sections of works such as The City of God to this topic, analyzing biblical passages concerning the vision of God.[57][58] According to 20th-century researcher Sayyid Sadiq Gawharin, Eastern mystical traditions—including Buddhism, Brahmanic traditions, and Hinduism—also place significant emphasis on kashf and shuhud achieved through mortification and introspection.[59]

Notes

  1. ↑ Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, lithograph, n.d., p. 245; Mullā Ṣadrā, al-Ḥikmat al-Mutaʿāliya fī al-Asfār al-ʿAqliyya al-Arbaʿa, 1981, vol. 1, p. 53.
  2. ↑ See Amīnī-nizhād, Sanjih-hā wa Mīzān-hā-yi ʿIrfān-i Islāmī.
  3. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Shīʿa dar Islām, Qom, 1388 Sh, p. 95.
  4. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Shīʿa dar Islām, Qom, 1388 Sh, p. 96.
  5. ↑ Yazdān-panāh, Mabānī wa Uṣūl-i ʿIrfān-i Naẓarī, 1388 Sh, pp. 103–104.
  6. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, al-Ḥikmat al-Mutaʿāliya, 1981, vol. 1, pp. 53 and 391–392.
  7. ↑ Shādhilī, Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur'ān, 1412 AH, vol. 2, p. 1139.
  8. ↑ Faʿālī, Tajrub-yi Dīnī wa Mukāshaf-yi ʿIrfānī, 1385 Sh, p. 556.
  9. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 Sh, vol. 22, pp. 484–494.
  10. ↑ ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qur'ān, 1417 AH, vol. 20, p. 352.
  11. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qur'ān, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, pp. 258-259.
  12. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qur'ān, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, p. 259.
  13. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qur'ān, 1386 Sh, vol. 1, p. 260.
  14. ↑ Ibn Athīr, al-Kāmil fī al-Tārīkh, 1385 AH, vol. 2, p. 179.
  15. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-Anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 21, p. 58, chap. 24.
  16. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-Anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 18, p. 411, chap. 4.
  17. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-Anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 70, p. 84, chap. 122.
  18. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-Anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 98, p. 114, chap. 15.
  19. ↑ Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, p. 107; Āmulī, Jāmiʿ al-Asrār, 1368 Sh, p. 462.
  20. ↑ Kāshānī, Laṭāʾif al-Iʿlām, vol. 2, p. 447.
  21. ↑ Shaykh al-Ishrāq, Majmūʿ-yi Muṣannafāt-i Shaykh al-Ishrāq, 1375 Sh, vol. 4, p. 136.
  22. ↑ Shaykh al-Ishrāq, Majmūʿ-yi Muṣannafāt-i Shaykh al-Ishrāq, 1375 Sh, vol. 4, p. 136.
  23. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Sirr al-Ṣalāt, 1388 Sh, p. 20; Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, p. 273.
  24. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Chihil Ḥadīth, 1388 Sh, p. 395.
  25. ↑ Anṣārī, Khwāja ʿAbd Allāh, Manāzil al-Sāʾirīn, 1417 AH, p. 124.
  26. ↑ Shaykh al-Ishrāq, Majmūʿ-yi Muṣannafāt-i Shaykh al-Ishrāq, 1375 Sh, vol. 2, p. 299; Kāshānī, Iṣṭilāḥāt al-Ṣūfiyya, 1381 Sh, p. 107.
  27. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, pp. 273–274.
  28. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, 273 and 280.
  29. ↑ Tilimsānī, Sharḥ Manāzil al-Sāʾirīn, 1371 Sh, vol. 2, pp. 509–510.
  30. ↑ Qūnawī, al-Murāsalāt, 1416 AH, p. 146–147.
  31. ↑ Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, pp. 107–108; Āmulī, Jāmiʿ al-Asrār, 1368 Sh, pp. 462–465.
  32. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, pp. 36–37; Imām Khumaynī, Taqrīrāt, 1385 Sh, vol. 3, pp. 349–350.
  33. ↑ Farghānī, Mushāriq al-Darārī, 1379 Sh, pp. 670–671; Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, p. 110; Āmulī, Jāmiʿ al-Asrār, 1368 Sh, p. 469.
  34. ↑ See Qayṣarī, Sharḥ-i Qayṣarī bar Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, p. 37; Āshtiyānī, Sharḥ-i Muqaddim-yi Qayṣarī bar Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1380 Sh, pp. 628–631.
  35. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Kasr Aṣnām al-Jāhiliyya, 1366 Sh, pp. 67–69 and 132.
  36. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Kasr Aṣnām al-Jāhiliyya, 1366 Sh, p. 128.
  37. ↑ Āmulī, al-Muqaddimāt, 1367 Sh, p. 490.
  38. ↑ Ibn Turka, Tamhīd al-Qawāʿid, 1360 Sh, p. 270; Jāmī, Nafaḥāt al-Uns min Ḥaḍarāt al-Quds, 1373 Sh, p. 57; Lāhījī, Mafātīḥ al-Iʿjāz fī Sharḥ Gulshan-i Rāz, 1381 Sh, pp. 37 and 46–47; Āshtiyānī, Sharḥ-i Muqaddim-yi Qayṣarī bar Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1380 Sh, pp. 592–596; Jawādī Āmulī, Taḥrīr Tamhīd al-Qawāʿid, 1372 Sh, pp. 131-141.
  39. ↑ al-Qayṣarī, Sharḥ al-Qayṣarī ʿalā Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, introduction of the seventh chapter as cited by Qumī, Mukāshafa wa Tajrub-yi Dīnī.
  40. ↑ Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, pp. 109–110; Āmulī, Jāmiʿ al-Asrār, 1368 Sh, p. 466.
  41. ↑ Qayṣarī, Sharḥ Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, 1375 Sh, pp. 99–100.
  42. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Sirr al-Ṣalāt, 1388 Sh, pp. 81 and 84; Imām Khumaynī, Ḥadīth-i Junūd, 1387 Sh, pp. 171–172 and 213; Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, 21–22.
  43. ↑ Imām Khumaynī, Taʿlīqāt Fuṣūṣ, 1410 AH, pp. 53-54.
  44. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 Sh, vol. 10, p. 96.
  45. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 Sh, vol. 10, p. 96.
  46. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Tafsīr-i Nimūna, 1374 Sh, vol. 10, p. 96.
  47. ↑ Ibn ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, n.d., vol. 3, p. 7.
  48. ↑ Ṣādiqī, Dar-āmadī bar Kalām-i Jadīd, 1381 Sh, pp. 245–246.
  49. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Payām-i Qur'ān, 1386 Sh, vol. 8, p. 458.
  50. ↑ Muḥammadī, Muqāyis-yi Sākhtārī-yi Tajrub-yi Dīnī wa Shuhūd-i ʿIrfānī, pp. 27–52.
  51. ↑ Baqlī Shīrāzī, Mashrab al-Arwāḥ, 1426 AH, p. 137.
  52. ↑ Qūnawī, Iʿjāz al-Bayān, 1381 Sh, p. 163.
  53. ↑ Mullā Ṣadrā, Īqāẓ al-Nāʾimīn, n.d., p. 37.
  54. ↑ See: Qur'an 7:143.
  55. ↑ The Bible, Torah, Exodus, chapter 33, verse 18.
  56. ↑ Ibn Maymūn, Dalālat al-Ḥāʾirīn, 1972, pp. 28–32.
  57. ↑ The Bible, Gospel, John, chapter 1, verse 18.
  58. ↑ Augustinus, Shahr-i Khudā, 1972, pp. 1099–1105.
  59. ↑ Gawharīn, Sharḥ-i Iṣṭilāḥāt-i Taṣawwuf, 1368 Sh, vol. 1, p. 10.

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  • Qayṣarī, Dāwūd b. Maḥmūd. Sharḥ-i Qayṣarī bar Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam. Qom: Tabʿ-i Bīdār, 1375 Sh.
  • Qūnawī, Ṣadr al-Dīn. Iʿjāz al-Bayān fī Tafsīr Umm al-Qur'ān. Edited by Sayyid Jalāl al-Dīn Āshtiyānī. Qom: Daftar-i Tablīghāt-i Islāmī, 1381 Sh.
  • Qūnawī, Ṣadr al-Dīn. al-Murāsalāt bayna Ṣadr al-Dīn Qūnawī wa Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī. Edited by Gudrun Schubert. Beirut: German Central Ministry of Science and Arts, 1416 AH.
  • Qumī, Muḥsin. "Mukāshafa wa Tajrub-yi Dīnī". Maʿrifat, no. 19, Winter 1375 Sh.
  • Shādhilī, Sayyid b. Quṭb b. Ibrāhīm. Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur'ān. Beirut: Dār al-Shurūq, 1412 AH.
  • Shaykh al-Ishrāq, Suhrawardī, Shihāb al-Dīn. Majmūʿ-yi Muṣannafāt-i Shaykh al-Ishrāq. Edited by Henry Corbin and others. Tehran: Institute for Cultural Studies and Research, 1375 Sh.
  • Ṣādiqī, Hādī. Dar-āmadī bar Kalām-i Jadīd. Qom: Daftar-i Nashr-i Ṭāhā, 1381 Sh.
  • ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qur'ān. Qom: Islamic Publication Office of the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom, 1417 AH.
  • ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. Shīʿa dar Islām. Qom: Būstān-i Kitāb, 1388 Sh.
  • Tilimsānī, Sulaymān b. ʿAlī. Sharḥ Manāzil al-Sāʾirīn. Edited by ʿAbd al-Ḥafīẓ Manṣūr. Qom: Bīdār, 1371 Sh.
  • Yazdān-panāh, Sayyid Yadullāh. Mabānī wa Uṣūl-i ʿIrfān-i Naẓarī. Qom: Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute, 1388 Sh.
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