Taqiyya

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(Redirected from Dissimulation)

Taqīyya (Arabic: التَّقِيَّة), or Dissimulation, is the act of concealing one's belief or performing an action contrary to one's heartfelt conviction in the presence of opponents to prevent religious or worldly harm. Shias are more renowned than followers of other Islamic denominations for their adherence to taqiyya, owing to their experience of various political, social, cultural, economic, and other forms of pressure throughout history from their adversaries.

There are different types of taqiyya, and Shia jurists have outlined various injunctive (taklifi) and declaratory (wad'i) rulings regarding it. In their view, when expressing one's beliefs in the presence of adversaries poses a danger to one's life, property, or reputation—or that of others—taqiyya becomes obligatory to the extent that such harm is averted. Moreover, depending on specific circumstances, taqiyya may also be recommended, disliked, permissible, or forbidden.

It is said that the majority of Sunni jurists consider taqiyya permissible when there is fear for one's life or even financial harm, as far as it serves to prevent the harm. Among Islamic denominations, Zaydism and Wahhabism reject taqiyya altogether.

Concept

Taqiyya, or dissimulation, is concealing the truth and one's belief in it in the presence of adversaries to avoid religious or worldly harm.[1] In other words, it's a way to protect oneself or others from harm or damage by outwardly aligning with the adversary in speech or actions.[2]

The term "taqiyya" is derived from the Arabic root "w-q-y," which means protection, preservation, and concealment to avoid harm and persecution.[3]

Significance

Taqiyya is a topic discussed and examined in Islamic jurisprudence, particularly in sections on cleanliness, prayer, fasting, Hajj, enjoining the right and forbidding the wrong.[4] In books on jurisprudential rules, taqiyya is mentioned as a principle, and some jurists have written independent essays on the subject.[5]

While the term "taqiyya" does not appear in the Quran, Muslim scholars believe certain Quranic verses[6] allude to the concept, and they reference these verses to establish the legitimacy of taqiyya.[7] In Shia hadith sources, numerous hadiths from the Infallible Imams (a) address taqiyya.[8] Al-Kulayni, the Shia scholar of hadith (d. 329/941), dedicated a section of his book al-Kafi to taqiyya, citing twenty-three relevant hadiths.[9] Al-Hurr al-'Amili, in his Wasa'il al-Shi'a, compiled 146 hadiths related to taqiyya across twelve sections.[10] Additionally, some Sunni hadith sources reference taqiyya, though not in a dedicated section.[11]

Taqiyya in Shiism

It is said that taqiyya is a theological and jurisprudential principle in Shia belief and a significant factor that allowed them to protect their faith and community throughout history.[12] As historical sources attest, Shiism faced various social, cultural, and political pressures, where openly expressing their beliefs to adversaries often led to significant harm to their lives and property. For this reason, the Imams of the Shia made taqiyya obligatory to safeguard their own lives and those of the Shia and to prevent the destruction of the Shia community.[13]

In Shia hadith sources, there are hadiths stating that "one who does not adhere to taqiyya does not hold the religion,"[14] emphasizes taqiyya's significance for the Infallible Imams (a) and their followers.[15]

According to Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, the Shia authority, taqiyya is not exclusive to Shiism.[16] He argues that all individuals or minorities throughout history, anywhere in the world, who face prejudiced adversaries such that expressing their views may result in harm to their life or property—and when expressing their beliefs is less important than protecting their life and property—will naturally resort to dissimulation and taqiyya, concealing their beliefs.[17]

In some hadiths transmitted from Imams of the Shia, the practice of taqiyya is attributed to several early prophets preceding the Prophet of Islam (s), including Seth,[18] Abraham (a),[19] and Joseph (a),[20] as well as to the Companions of the Cave (the Seven Sleepers).[21]

Al-Shahid al-Awwal, an eighth/fourteenth-century Shia jurist, believes that many hadiths transmitted from the Infallible Imams (a) reflect the practice of taqiyya. He argues that taqiyya accounts for many differences and conflicts among the hadiths.[22] Therefore, determining whether a hadith involves taqiyya is crucial for accurately inferring Sharia rulings.[23]

Varieties of Taqiyya

With regard to the motivation and purpose of the individual practicing it, taqiyya is divided into two types:[24]

  • Fearful taqiyya: This form of taqiyya is practiced in the face of adversaries when there is a risk of harm to life, property, or reputation.[25] Fearful taqiyya is further divided into two types: coerced taqiyya, where an individual is forced through threats to say something contrary to their beliefs, such as blasphemous statements;[26] and concealment taqiyya, where an individual conceals their beliefs to protect their own life or that of their friends and family.[27] An example of coerced taqiyya is 'Ammar Yasir's dissimulation before the Quraysh polytheists to save his life,[28] while the taqiyya practiced by the Believer of Pharaoh's People before Pharaoh's associates, and the concealment of beliefs by the Companions of the Cave to save their lives, are instances of concealment taqiyya.[29]
  • Tolerance taqiyya: Also known as endearment taqiyya,[30] this form involves concealing one's beliefs for greater interests, such as preserving unity, fostering friendship, and preventing animosity—in general, prioritizing objectives more important than openly expressing one's beliefs.[31] Citing hadiths from the Infallible Imams (a),[32] Some Shia jurists identify instances of tolerance or endearment taqiyya in actions like participating in Sunni assemblies (not for the sake of saving one's life), attending their congregational prayers (especially during the Hajj season), visiting their sick, attending their funerals, and other similar social interactions, all of which help maintain Muslim unity, prevent grudges, and dispel suspicions.[33]

Other forms of taqiyya have also been identified.[34] Imam Khomeini has mentioned various types of taqiyya based on the individual practicing it, the person before whom it is practiced, and the subject matter of the taqiyya.[35]

Some scholars have categorized taqiyya based on the conditions and position of the individual practicing it into three types: political taqiyya (dissimulation before ruling political authorities), jurisprudential taqiyya (dissimulation in expressing jurisprudential rulings), and social taqiyya (dissimulation in interactions with people within society).[36]

Jurisprudential Rulings

Shia jurists have cited the Quran and the Tradition to establish specific jurisprudential rulings for taqiyya, which can be outlined as follows:

Injunctive Ruling

In terms of its injunctive (taklifi) ruling, taqiyya can be classified into the following categories:[37]

  • Obligatory taqiyya: According to Shia jurists, taqiyya becomes obligatory when expressing one's beliefs to adversaries poses a definite or even probable risk to the life, property, or reputation of the individual or others, and it is practiced to the extent that the harm is averted.[38] The criterion for obligatory taqiyya is that whatever is being protected through taqiyya is something that must be safeguarded and is forbidden to be endangered or wasted.[39]
  • Recommended taqiyya: This applies when the omission of taqiyya does not pose an immediate threat but raises concerns that harm may gradually arise in the future.[40] According to some Shia jurists, tolerance taqiyya is an example of recommended taqiyya.[41] Al-Shaykh al-Ansari (d. 1281/1864) holds that recommended taqiyya is limited to cases explicitly mentioned in hadiths, such as interactions with Sunni Muslims, visiting their sick, praying in their mosques, and attending their funerals. In his fatwa, other actions, such as criticizing prominent Shia figures to foster friendship with Sunni Muslims, are not permitted.[42]
  • Disliked taqiyya: This refers to situations where it is preferable to forgo taqiyya and endure its harms rather than practice it.[43] Al-Shahid al-Awwal suggests that disliked taqiyya involves a recommended action, where performing it does not lead to immediate harm, nor is there a foreseeable harm arising from it in the future.[44]
  • Permissible taqiyya: This occurs when practicing or omitting taqiyya is equally acceptable.[45] Al-Shaykh al-Ansari holds that this form of taqiyya involves preventing harm, where the presence or absence of that harm has an equal impact from a religious perspective.[46]
  • Forbidden taqiyya: This occurs when omitting taqiyya does not involve any harm—whether immediate or future.[47] Some instances of forbidden taqiyya according to Shia jurists are as follows:[48]
  1. When taqiyya leads to corruption in the religion or introduces heresy into it.[49]
  2. According to the majority of Shia jurists,[50] when taqiyya results in bloodshed, such as forcing an individual to kill a believer to save their own life. In this case, it is not permissible to kill the believer under the guise of taqiyya.[51]

Declarative Ruling

A question discussed by jurists regarding the declarative ruling (wad'i) of taqiyya is whether worship, such as prayer, performed under taqiyya needs to be repeated once the individual is no longer in a taqiyya situation.[52] For instance, the practice of takattuf (placing the palm of one hand on the back of the other during prayer)[53] is recommended among Sunni Muslims but impermissible among Shias.[54] If an individual performs takattuf out of taqiyya, should they repeat the prayer when no longer in a taqiyya situation?[55]

Shia jurists generally believe that when an individual acts taqiyya, they have fulfilled their religious obligation, and there is no need to repeat it.[56] However, al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki, a Shia jurist of the tenth/fifteenth century, holds that only those actions explicitly mentioned in hadiths regarding taqiyya, such as performing prayer with takattuf or washing the feet during wudu, do not need to be repeated.[57]

Evidence

Shia jurists have relied on the Four Sources—namely the Quran, hadiths, consensus, and reason—to establish the permissibility of taqiyya.

The Quran

The primary verse cited by jurists to support the permissibility of taqiyya is Qur'an 16:106.[58] The verse states:

Many Shia and Sunni exegetes of the Quran explain that this verse was revealed about 'Ammar b. Yasir.[59] Under torture by polytheists, 'Ammar was forced to utter words repudiating Islam and the Prophet (s). Some people believed that 'Ammar had abandoned Islam. When the story reached the Prophet (s), he affirmed that 'Ammar was filled with faith and that monotheism was deeply embedded in his heart. When 'Ammar came to the Prophet (s) in tears, the Prophet (s) comforted him and advised that he could repudiate Islam and the Prophet (s) again if subjected to duress.[60]

Additionally, jurists have cited verse 28 of Quran 40 and verse 28 of Quran 3 to support the permissibility of taqiyya.[61]

Hadiths

According to Nasir Makarim Shirazi and Sayyid Muhammad Sadiq Ruhani, numerous hadiths indicate the permissibility of practicing taqiyya, which is frequently transmitted (mutawatir).[62] These hadiths are categorized into various types:

  • Hadiths suggest that taqiyya is the shield of believers.[63]
  • Hadiths stating that those who do not practice taqiyya have no religion.[64]
  • Hadiths describing taqiyya as an outstanding obligation favored by God and His friends.[65]
  • Hadiths suggest that some early prophets also practiced taqiyya.[66]

In addition, jurists have cited other general hadiths to establish the legitimacy of taqiyya, such as hadiths of no harm (la-darar), hadiths on dissociation and cursing (which permit dissociation from and cursing the Prophet (s) and the Infallible Imams (s) under taqiyya to protect one's life), and hadith al-raf' (lifting of obligations in certain circumstances).[67]

Consensus

Al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki states that Shia jurists have a consensus on the permissibility of taqiyya.[68]

Reason

Jurists present a rational argument: taqiyya prioritizes a more important matter over a less important one.[69] It is rationally imperative to prioritize what is more crucial. For example, when faced with two simultaneous obligations and unable to fulfill both, reason dictates that one should perform the more important action.[70] Preventing harm and protecting life are obligations that rationally take precedence over overexpressing one's beliefs. Therefore, taqiyya is considered rationally obligatory to prevent harm and safeguard life.[71]

Relationship between Taqiyya and Tawriya

Tawriya (or half-truth) involves making a statement that, while truthful in itself, is intended to convey a different meaning to the audience.[72] Sometimes taqiyya is practiced in the form of tawriya, which is considered the best form of taqiyya. It is recommended that tawriya be employed for taqiyya whenever possible.[73]

For instance, in the story of Joseph (a), when his brothers came to him to collect their share of wheat, Joseph secretly placed the royal cup in their load and instructed his announcer to declare that the caravan was a thief. His purpose was to retain his brother, Benjamin, in his court. According to Quranic verses and hadiths, as explained by Quranic exegetes, Joseph (a) practiced taqiyya through tawriya in this situation. He did not mean that they had stolen the cup; rather, he meant that the brothers had stolen Joseph (a) from his father and thrown him into the well.[74]

Sunni Perspective

According to al-Mawsu'a al-fiqhiyya al-Kuwaitiyya (The Kuwaiti Jurisprudential Encyclopedia, a 45-volume work on Sunni jurisprudence), the majority of Sunni scholars believe that taqiyya is permissible in cases of necessity—such as fear of death, persecution, or significant harm. In such situations, one may practice taqiyya to the extent necessary to prevent the harm.[75]

To establish the permissibility and legitimacy of taqiyya, Sunni scholars also refer to hadiths[76] in addition to verses such as verse 28 of Qur'an 3 and verse 106 of Qur'an 16.[77]

Absolute Rejection of Taqiyya in Certain Islamic Denominations

Among Sunni Muslims, Wahhabis completely reject taqiyya as illegitimate and criticize Shias for their acceptance and practice of it.[78] Among Shia denominations, Zaydis are noted for their wholesale rejection of taqiyya.[79]

One objection raised by Ibn Taymiyya, and subsequently by Wahhabis, is that taqiyya is akin to lying and hypocrisy.[80] In response, it is argued that taqiyya differs fundamentally from hypocrisy. Hypocrisy involves concealing disbelief while pretending to hold belief, whereas taqiyya involves concealing one's faith while pretending to disbelieve.[81]

Monographs

Numerous independent essays and books have been written about taqiyya. Some of these are listed below:

  • Risala fi al-taqiyya: A short essay by al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki on the jurisprudential ruling of taqiyya, included in his collected works titled Rasa'il al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki in three volumes. The essay on taqiyya is published in the second volume.[82]
  • Risala fi al-taqiyya: This is an essay by al-Shaykh al-Ansari on the jurisprudential ruling of taqiyya. This essay was published along with other essays by al-Shaykh al-Ansari in a book titled Rasa'il fiqhiyya (Jurisprudential Essays).[83]
  • Al-Taqiyya: This essay on the jurisprudential rulings of taqiyya was authored by Imam Khomeini in 1373/1953-4, following his lectures on the subject.[84] It is published in a book titled al-Rasa'il al-'ashara (The Ten Essays), alongside other essays.[85]
  • Taqiyya az didgah-i madhahib wa firqa-ha-yi Islami-yi ghayr-Shi'i (Taqiyya from the perspective of non-Shia Islamic denominations and sects) by Thamir Hashim al-Amidi, written in Arabic and translated into Persian by Muhammad Sadiq Arif. The book examines the views of the renowned jurists of the Four Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence. The author argues that Sunni jurists also consider taqiyya permissible, citing evidence from the Quran and tradition to support its legitimacy.[86]
  • Taqiyya sipari barayi mubaraza-yi 'amiqtar (Taqiyya as a shield for a deeper fight), authored by Nasir Makarim Shirazi. The book explores the following main themes: an examination of the jurisprudential and ethical aspects of taqiyya and responses to existing objections; the literal and terminological meanings of taqiyya; its background in other human creeds and the practices of prophets; the objectives of taqiyya; its Quranic, hadith-based, theological, ethical, and jurisprudential dimensions; and answers to frequently asked questions on the topic.

Notes

  1. ↑ Mufīd, Taṣḥīḥ al-iʿtiqād, p. 137.
  2. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 71.
  3. ↑ Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, under the word "waqaya".
  4. ↑ Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif al-Fiqh al-Islāmī, Farhang-i fiqh-i Fārsī, vol. 2, p. 585.
  5. ↑ See: Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 386; Ṣadr, Māwarāʾ al-fiqh, vol. 1, p. 108.
  6. ↑ See: Qur'an 16:106; Qur'an 40:28.
  7. ↑ See: Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 6, p. 203; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 3, p. 153.
  8. ↑ See: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 3, p. 548-560; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 203-254.
  9. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 3, p. 548-560.
  10. ↑ See: Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 203-254.
  11. ↑ See: Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 9, p. 19; Haythamī, Kashf al-astār, vol. 4, p. 113; Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, vol. 20, p. 94; Ḥabīb al-ʿAmīdī, Taqīyya az dīdgāh-i madhāhib wa firqa-hā-yi Islāmī-yi ghayr-i Shīʿī, p. 72-77.
  12. ↑ Sultānī Ranānī, Imām Ṣādiq (a) wa masʾala-yi taqīyya, p. 29.
  13. ↑ See: Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, vol. 11, p. 43-47; Subḥānī, al-Taqīyya; mafhūmuhā, ḥadduhā, dalīluhā, p. 24-42; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 407-408.
  14. ↑ See: Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 204-206.
  15. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Taqīyya; mafhūmuhā, ḥadduhā, dalīluhā, p. 76.
  16. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 388.
  17. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 388.
  18. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, vol. 75, p. 419.
  19. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 208.
  20. ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 11, p. 238.
  21. ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, vol. 11, p. 238.
  22. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157.
  23. ↑ Ṭāhirī Iṣfahānī, al-Muḥāḍirāt, vol. 2, p. 119.
  24. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol.1, p. 410.
  25. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Makāsib al-muḥarrama, vol. 2, p. 236; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 377.
  26. ↑ Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 394.
  27. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Makāsib al-muḥarrama, vol. 2, p. 236; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 492.
  28. ↑ Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 395.
  29. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Dāstān-i yārān, p. 61-65.
  30. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 410.
  31. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Makāsib al-muḥarrama, vol. 2, p. 236; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 410.
  32. ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 3, p. 555; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 8, p. 430.
  33. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 56-57; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 453; Makārim Shīrāzī, Dāstān-i yārān, p. 56-57.
  34. ↑ See: Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 7-10; Fāḍil Harandī, Taqīyya-yi sīyāsī, p. 98.
  35. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 7-10.
  36. ↑ Sultānī Ranānī, Imām Ṣādiq (a) wa masʾala-yi taqīyya, p. 35.
  37. ↑ Mufīd, Awāʾil al-maqālāt, p. 118; Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157; Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 73-74; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 389.
  38. ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān, vol. 2, p. 435; Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157; Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 73-74; Subḥānī, al-Taqīyya; mafhūmuhā, ḥadduhā, dalīluhā, p. 67.
  39. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 411; Makārim Shīrāzī, Taqīyya wa ḥifẓ-i nīrū-hā, p. 94.
  40. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157; Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 73-74.
  41. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 451-452.
  42. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 75.
  43. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 75.
  44. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157.
  45. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, Taqīyya wa ḥifẓ-i nīrū-hā, p. 37.
  46. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 75.
  47. ↑ Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Qawā'id wa al-fawāʾid, vol. 2, p. 157.
  48. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 415.
  49. ↑ Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 407-409; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 415; Subḥānī, al-Taqīyya; mafhūmuhā, ḥadduhā, dalīluhā, p. 67; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 216.
  50. ↑ Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 405.
  51. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 20-21; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 419; Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 3, p. 557.
  52. ↑ Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 426.
  53. ↑ Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif al-Fiqh al-Islāmī, Farhang-i fiqh-i Fārsī, vol. 2, p. 598.
  54. ↑ Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, vol. 11, p. 15.
  55. ↑ See: Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 77.
  56. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 77; Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 429; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 444.
  57. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Karakī, Rasāʾil al-Karakī, vol. 2, p. 52.
  58. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 392; Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 396.
  59. ↑ See: Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, vol. 6, p. 428; Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 6, p. 203; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 12, p. 358; Qurṭubī, Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 10, p. 180; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿaẓīm, vol. 4, p. 520; Bayḍāwi, Anwār al-tanzīl wa asrār al-taʾwīl, vol. 3, p. 422.
  60. ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Tibyān, vol. 6, p. 428; Ṭabrisī, Majmaʿ al-bayān, vol. 6, p. 203; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 12, p. 358; Qurṭubī, Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 10, p. 180; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿaẓīm, vol. 4, p. 520; Bayḍāwi, Anwār al-tanzīl wa asrār al-taʾwīl, vol. 3, p. 422.
  61. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 394; Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 397.
  62. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 396; Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 399.
  63. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 27, p. 88; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 396.
  64. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 210; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 398.
  65. ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 206-208; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 399.
  66. ↑ See: Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 16, p. 208-210; Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 401.
  67. ↑ See: Ruḥānī, Fiqh al-Ṣādiq, vol. 11, p. 399-405.
  68. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Karakī, Rasāʾil al-Karakī, vol. 2, p. 51.
  69. ↑ Makārim Shīrāzī, al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhīyya, vol. 1, p. 388.
  70. ↑ Ṣadr, Durūs fī ʿilm al-uṣūl, vol. 2, p. 234.
  71. ↑ Fāḍil Miqdād, al-Lawāmiʿ al-ilāhīyya, p. 377.
  72. ↑ Anṣārī, al-Makāsib al-muḥarrama, vol. 2, p. 17.
  73. ↑ Gulistāna Iṣfahānī, Manhaj al-yaqīn, p. 83.
  74. ↑ Ṭabrisī, al-Iḥtijāj, vol. 2, p. 355; Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 217; Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 11, p. 223; Makārim Shīrāzī, Taqīyya wa ḥifẓ-i nīrū-hā, p. 68.
  75. ↑ Group of authors, al-Mawsūʿa al-fiqhīyya al-Kuwaitīyya, vol. 13, p. 186-187.
  76. ↑ See: Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 9, p. 19; Haythamī, Kashf al-astār, vol. 4, p. 113; Ṭabarānī, al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, vol. 20, p. 94; Ḥabīb al-ʿAmīdī, Taqīyya az dīdgāh-i madhāhib wa firqa-hā-yi Islāmī-yi ghayr-i Shīʿī, p. 72-77.
  77. ↑ Group of authors, al-Mawsūʿa al-fiqhīyya al-Kuwaitīyya, vol. 13, p. 186-187.
  78. ↑ Nūrī, Naqd-i dīgāh-i Ibn Taymīyya dar bāb-i taqīyya, p. 149.
  79. ↑ Mashkūr, Farhang-i firaq-i Islāmī, p. 218.
  80. ↑ See: Ibn Taymīyya, Minhāj al-sunna al-nabawīyya, vol. 1, p. 68, vol. 2, p. 46; Qifārī, Uṣūl madhhab al-Shīʿa al-imāmīyya al-ithnā ʿasharīyya, vol. 2, p. 819; Bākistānī, al-Shīʿa wa al-Tashayyuʿ, p. 88.
  81. ↑ Subḥānī, al-Taqīyya; mafhūmuhā, ḥadduhā, dalīluhā, p. 74.
  82. ↑ Muḥaqqiq al-Karakī, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn al-. Rasāʾil al-Karakī, vol. 2, p. 49.
  83. ↑ Anṣārī, Rasāʾil fiqhīyya, p. 71.
  84. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 1.
  85. ↑ Khomeinī, al-Rasāʾil al-ʿashara, p. 7.
  86. ↑ Ḥabīb al-ʿAmīdī, Taqīyya az dīdgāh-i madhāhib wa firqa-hā-yi Islāmī-yi ghayr-i Shīʿī, p. 12-13.

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