Fasting
| Islam |
|---|
 |
| Prayer Wajib: Daily Prayers • Essentials of Prayer • Friday Prayer • Eid Prayer • Al-Ayat Prayer • Funeral Prayer• Istijari Prayer Mustahab: Night Prayer • Ghufayla Prayer • Ja'far al-Tayyar Prayer Other types of worship Rulings on Tahara Civil Law Family Law Criminal Law Economic Laws Other Laws See also |
Fasting or Ṣawm (Arabic: صَوْم) ranks amongst the most significant obligatory rituals in Islam. Muslims must abstain from several activities, including eating and drinking from dawn to dusk, to obey God's command. Fasting is one of the ten ancillaries of the faith, and it has also been obligatory in other religions in a different manner.
Fasting is a means to seek proximity to God, increasing one's piety. It purifies the soul and body, atones for some sins, and strengthens self-control and sympathy [towards the poor]. Moreover, it inculcates a sense of companionship with the needy and hungry.
According to Islamic jurisprudence, fasting is categorized into four types: obligatory, recommended, disliked, and forbidden.
Invalidators of fasting include eating and drinking, sexual intercourse, attributing falsehood to God, the Prophet (s), and the Imams (a), letting thick dust reach the throat, remaining in the state of janaba (impurity caused by semen discharge) until the call for the morning prayer, menstruation (hayd) and postnatal bleeding (nifas), masturbation, immersing the entire head into the water, and intentional vomiting. If any of these invalidators is done on purpose, the person for whom fasting was obligatory must do a make-up (qada') fasting and pay the kaffara.
Fasting is considered one of the pillars of Islam. It is obligatory for every mature, sane, and healthy Muslim. The verse of fasting was revealed in Sha'ban 28, 2/February 24, 624: "O you who have faith! fasting is prescribed for you as it was for those before you, so that you may be God-wary."[1]. Later, some fasting conditions were changed, and some were abrogated.
The Notion
In jurisprudential terminology, "sawm" (fasting) is to abstain from things that invalidate the fasting with the intention of proximity to God.[2] 'Allama al-Hilli defines it as abstinence from particular acts from the rise of true dawn (al-fajr al-sadiq) until the sunset.[3] Some jurists define fasting as the soul's preparation for refraining from the relevant invalidators.[4]
The term "sawm" in its literal sense, means refraining from doing something.[5]
In Other Religions
The Qur'an clearly expressed this divine deed as a religious ritual practiced in different religions.[6]
According to the Torah, Prophet Moses (a), prior to receiving scrolls from God, was fasting forty days and nights on Mount Sinai; he avoided drinking and eating during that time.[7]
The Qur'an talks about the fasting of Zechariah (a)[8] and Mary (a),[9] as well as those hadiths[10] in which the practice of fasting in religions before Islam has been mentioned. Moreover, fasting is said to be practiced by other pre-Islamic peoples, such as ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Indians.[11]
In Islam
Fasting became obligatory for Muslims on Sha'ban 28, 2/February 24, 624, thirteen days after the change of the qibla.[12]
During the early periods of Islam, Muslims were supposed to follow two more commands: After breaking meal (iftar) Muslims had to eat only before they went to bed, and marital intercourse was regarded unlawful during the whole month of Ramadan. Both commands were abrogated later.[13]
In Quran
Fasting is mentioned fourteen times in the Qur'an. The commands on fasting are stated in Qur'an 2, verses 183 to 185[14] and 187[15]. Additionally, fasting is regarded as a replacement for hajj practices or compensation for committed sins. As stated in Qur'an 33:35, the men and the women who fast will be forgiven by God[16]. Also, in Qur'an 19:26, lady Mary (a) made a promise not to speak for a period, which is called fasting in the Qur'an.[17]
In Hadith
Fasting is mentioned in hadiths as:
- One of the five pillars of Islam[18]
- Creates balance between the deprived and the rich [19]
- Reminds people of thirst and hunger on the Day of Judgment[23]
- Rescues people from hunger and thirst in the Day of Judgment[24]
- Is a shield against the punishment in afterlife[25]
- Brings happiness in the resurrection[26]
- Supplications will be accepted in iftar[28]
- Brings health for the body[29]
- Improves memory[30]
- Calms the heart[31]
- To abandon fasting would lead to disbelief[35]
According to Abd Allah Jawadi Amuli, a Quranic exegete and a philosopher, in his Quranic exegesis Tasnim, fasting reinforces the spirit of discipline, contentment, and patience towards sins and problems in individuals and the society.[36] According to one statistic published online, the rate of social crimes in Iran decreases during Ramadan.[37] On top of all, according to some medical studies, fasting helps the body's physical and psychological well-being through its positive effects on the immune system. It also decreases anxiety and depression, increases self-esteem, and prevents cardiovascular diseases.[38]
Types of Fasting in Islamic Jurisprudence
According to jurisprudential rulings, fasting is categorized into four types:[39]
| Obligatory fasting |
|
| Recommended fasting |
All the days of the year are regarded as recommended days for fasting except for the forbidden days, disliked days, and obligatory days of fasting. Besides, fasting is highly recommended on these several days:
It is common among Muslims to prepare teenagers who are not obligated to fast yet, to start preparing them by fasting in a partial fashion in which they should abstain from snacks between meals. |
| Disliked fasting |
|
| Forbidden fasting |
|
Rulings
 | This section is a general introduction to the rulings of a fiqhi topic. |
Fasting has many rulings; some of the most important are as follows:
Intention
- Before the adhan of fajr prayer and at the beginning of the first day of Ramadan, the intention should be made to fast during this sacred month to attain nearness to God.[40]
- In compensating fasting, whoever has not broken the rules of fasting up to noon prayer's Adhan, can intend the rest of the day as compensatory fasting.[41]
- In recommended fasting, whoever does not break the fasting until the sunset, can intend the day as a recommended fasting.[42]
What Invalidate Fasting?
Any of the following nine things can invalidate fasting:
- Eating and drinking (issues like injection are a matter of dispute)
- Sexual intercourse
- Attributing lies to God, Prophet Muhammad (a) or the Imams (a)
- Immersing the entire head into the water (according to some jurists)
- Deliberate inhalation of smoke, dust, etc. (according to most jurists)
- Remaining in the state of janaba, hayd (menstruation) or nifas (postnatal bleeding) up to the adhan of fajr
- Masturbating
- Intentional vomiting
- Enema with liquid
The mentioned acts will invalidate Fasting if done intentionally; however, if one does them unintentionally or is forced to do them, the fasting is not void.[43]
Disliked Activities during Fasting
According to jurists, the following actions are disliked (makruh) when fasting: touching, kissing, and doing acts of foreplay with one’s spouse, using kohl for eye makeup, anything that leads to weakness of the body, smelling flowers, making one’s clothes wet, anything that might cause bleeding in the mouth such as tooth extraction, and gargling with water without a rational purpose.[44]
Those Who Are Not Obligated to Fasting
- Old and ill people who are not expected to recover and who may suffer severe difficulty are not obligated to fast, and they do not need to compensate for it either. However, they have to give away a specific amount of food called "mudd" (approximately 750 grams of flour or rice or dates, etc.) for each obligatory fasting day they have missed.[45]
- If fasting is potentially dangerous for pregnant or nursing women and their child, they are not permitted to fast. However, they have to compensate for those obligatory fasting days in the future and give a mudd of food to a poor person.[46]
- Those ill people who may recover in the future and those who cannot tolerate hunger and thirst are allowed to break their fasting, only they have to compensate for each fasting day they miss. If one is potentially in danger of death or losing a part of body, one has to break fasting.[47]
- A traveler who stays in the destination for less than ten days.[48] Exceptions to this ruling include those who frequently travel and those, like drivers, whose job is to travel.[49]
Drinking in Hardship
Some jurists believe that if people face difficulties during fasting in tolerating thirst, they are allowed to drink the only amount of water that fulfills the need.[50]
There is disagreement whether the fasting is void or not. Some believe that they should continue fasting without compensating for it in the future.[51] However, some other jurists believe that the fasting is invalid and it should be compensated, but there is no need for kaffara.[52]
In Polar Regions
Muslims in Polar Regions such as Sweden face long days in summer. Islamic organizations and also jurists have expressed different attitudes toward this issue, and they have not reached an agreement yet.[citation needed]
Some Rules
- While people are still liable to obligatory fasting, they cannot make recommended fasting, rather they have to compensate (qada) for their missed fasting.
- If a person is observing a recommended fasting, then is invited for a meal by friends or relatives, it is recommended to accept the invitation and break the recommended fasting.
Breaking Fast
The evening meal when Muslims end or break fasting at sunset is called iftar. According to the majority of Shi'a jurists, they must wait for the time of adhan of Maghrib prayers.[citation needed] Breaking fasting with water, milk, or date fruits is recommended.[53] Because giving iftar to people is considered highly praiseworthy among Muslims,[54] it would generally lead to gatherings of relatives, neighbors and friends.
Also, it has become a custom among Muslims to give iftar to people in mosques and holy shrines.
Expiation (Kaffara)
Those who have broken fasting during obligatory fasting days such as the month of Ramadan due to traveling, sickness, etc. are required to compensate these days with another fast. Compensation of the fasting of Ramadan is not required to be immediate, but it is until the beginning of the next month of Ramadan.[55] However if they fail to do so, they have to offer kaffara to a needy person and also compensate for the missed day.[56] If they intentionally break obligatory fasting without an excuse, they are required to feed sixty poor people or fast for sixty days (thirty-one days must be consecutive according to most of marja's), they also have to compensate the missed fasting day.[57]
If they break fasting by a forbidden action, they are required to do al-kaffara al-jam' and feed sixty poor people and fast for sixty days as mentioned above.[58]
Levels
In the books of Irfan (mysticism), three levels of fasting are mentioned:
- Common fasting is only abstaining from eating and drinking, and also the things which could make fasting unacceptable.[59]
- Special fasting (khass) also includes the rules mentioned above as well as abstaining from every part of the body from sins. It also includes praying at night, avoiding bothering people, not being jealous of people, avoiding personal adversities and also trying to have a better day comparing to the other days.[60]
- The most special fasting (khas al-khas) not only includes the rules mentioned for special fasting but also it includes emptying one's heart from everything other than God, avoiding obeying desires and lust, and even avoiding thinking about committing sins.[61]
According to hadiths, true fasting is regarded as abstaining every part of body from things prohibited by God,[62] including eye, ear, tongue, etc.[63] In addition, being careful about the mouth is far more important than abstaining from food, and also being careful about the heart is far more important than the mouth.[64]
Philosophy
The Qur'an, hadiths, and scholars have mentioned various reasons for fasting. When the Qur'an states the ruling of fasting, it mentions piety as one of its reasons: "O you who have faith! Prescribed for you is fasting as it was prescribed for those who were before you, so that you may be Godwary." (Qur'an 2:183)
One of the most important philosophies of fasting is improving ikhlas (sincerity) and willpower; it also helps the person to better worship God.
Fasting would make people recognize the hunger and thirst so that they would remember the Day of Judgment and the eternal life in the hereafter and prepare for themselves. Such hardship would make people avoid arrogance. It also prepares them for practicing the obligatory religious deeds as well as khums and zakat.
In a hadith narrated from God by Prophet Muhammad (s), the result of fasting is expressed as: wisdom and true knowledge of God which makes people spiritually calm and peaceful in difficulties of life.
Fasting makes people united, cooperative and devoted, which leads to helping the poor.
Moreover, fasting improves discipline, contentment, and patience in the face of sins and difficulties of life among individuals and society. Social misconducts significantly reduce in the month of Ramadan.
Through patience and tolerance, fasting prepares people to be committed to achieving their goals.
See Also
Notes
- ↑ Qur'an 2:183
- ↑ Ḥillī, Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām vol. 1, p. 168; Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā, vol. 3, p. 521; Khomeini, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, vol. 1, p. 278.
- ↑ Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, vol. 6, p. 5.
- ↑ See: Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Durūs al-sharʿīyya, vol. 1, p. 266.
- ↑ Farāhīdī, al-ʿayn, vol. 3, p. 171; Ibn Fāris, Muʿjam maqāyīs al-lugha, vol. 3, p. 323; Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, Mufradāt, p. 500.
- ↑ See Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, 1390 AH, vol. 2, p. 7-8
- ↑ Exodus 34:28
- ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 2, p. 7.
- ↑ Qur'an 19: 26
- ↑ See: Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, vol. 13, p. 427 and vol. 17, p. 292.
- ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī, al-Mīzān, vol. 2, p. 7.
- ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 18, p. 194; Yaʿqūbī, Tārīkh al-Yaʿqūbī, Dār Ṣādir, vol. 2, p. 42
- ↑ Ṭabrisī, Jawāmiʿ al-jāmiʿ, Jāmiʿa-yi Mudarrisīn, vol. 1, p. 106; Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, vol. 7, p. 81
- ↑ O you who have faith! Prescribed for you is fasting as it was prescribed for those who were before you, so that you may be God-wary. (183) That for known days. But should any of you be sick or on a journey, let it be a [similar] number of other days. Those who find it straining shall be liable to atonement by feeding a needy person. Should anyone do good of his own accord, that is better for him, and to fast is better for you, should you know. (184) The month of Ramadan is one in which the Qur'an was sent down as guidance to mankind, with manifest proofs of guidance and the Criterion. So let those of you who witness it fast [in] it, and as for someone who is sick or on a journey, let it be a [similar] number of other days. Allah desires ease for you, and He does not desire hardship for you, and so that you may complete the number, and magnify Allah for guiding you, and that you may give thanks. (185)
- ↑ You are permitted, on the night of the fast, to go into your wives: they are a garment for you, and you are a garment for them. Allah knew that you used to betray yourselves, so He pardoned you and excused you. So now consort with them, and seek what Allah has ordained for you, and eat and drink until the white streak becomes manifest to you from the dark streak at the crack of dawn. Then complete the fast until nightfall, and do not consort with them while you dwell in confinement in the mosques. These are Allah's bounds, so do not approach them. Thus does Allah clarify His signs for mankind so that they may be God-fearing (187)
- ↑ Indeed the Muslim men and the Muslim women, the faithful men and the faithful women, the obedient men and the obedient women, the truthful men and the truthful women, the patient men and the patient women, the humble men and the humble women, the charitable men and the charitable women, the men who fast and the women who fast, the men who guard their private parts and the women who guard, the men who remember Allah greatly and the women who remember [Allah greatly] —Allah holds in store for them forgiveness and a great reward
- ↑ Eat, drink, and be comforted. Then if you see any human, say, "Indeed I have vowed a fast to the All-beneficent, so I will not speak to any human today."
- ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 2, p. 18-24 and vol. 4, p. 62
- ↑ Ṣadūq, Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 73
- ↑ Nahj al-balāgha, ed. Ṣubḥī Ṣāliḥ, Saying 252, p. 512
- ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 93, p. 257
- ↑ Ṣadūq, Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 75
- ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 10, p. 9
- ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Hidāyat al-umma, 1412 AH, vol. 4, p. 268
- ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 62; Ibn Shuʿba, Tuḥaf al-ʿuqūl, 1363 Sh, p. 258
- ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 65
- ↑ Qummī, Tafsīr al-Qummi, 1404 AH, vol. 1, p. 46; ʿAyyāshī, Tafsīr al-ʿAyyāshī, 1380 AH, vol. 1, p. 43
- ↑ Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār, 1403 AH, vol. 93, p. 255
- ↑ Pāyanda, Nahj al-faṣāḥa, 1387 Sh, p. 547
- ↑ Ṭabrisī, Makārim al-Akhlāq, 1412 AH, p. 51
- ↑ Ṭūsī, al-Amālī, 1414 AH, p. 296
- ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 62
- ↑ Ṣadūq, Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 75
- ↑ Nūrī, Mustadrak al-wasāʾil, 1408 AH, vol. 7, p. 400
- ↑ Ṣadūq, Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 118
- ↑ Jawādī Āmulī, Tafsīr-i tasnīm, vol. 9, p. 288.
- ↑ 5 to 33 percent reduction in crimes during the month of Ramadan (Persian).
- ↑ Riḍāʾī, Rūzih dārī wa salāmat az nigāh-i pizishkī, p. ?
- ↑ See ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ, 1414 AH, vol. 6, p. 5-6; Najafī, Jawāhir al-kalām, 1404 AH, vol. 16, p. 352 and vol. 17, p. 89-132; Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrawa al-wuthqā, 1419 AH, vol. 3, p. 521 and 657-663
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1424 AH, vol. 1, p. 881.
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1424 AH, vol. 1, p. 881.
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1424 AH, vol. 1, p. 881.
- ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrawa al-wuthqā, 1419 AH, vol. 3, p. 541-577; Imām Khomeini, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1424 AH, vol. 1, p. 891
- ↑ Shāhrūdī, Farhang-i fiqh, vol. 4, p. 171-172.
- ↑ Imām Khomeinī Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, vol. 1, p. 955.
- ↑ Imām Khomeinī Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, vol. 1, p. 957-958.
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, 1424 AH, vol. 1, p. 955-958.
- ↑ Imām Khomeinī Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, vol. 1, p. 951.
- ↑ Imām Khomeinī, Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil, vol. 1, p. 701.
- ↑ Ḥakīm, Mustamsak al-ʿurwa al-wuthqā, 1374 Sh, vol. 8, p. 324; Āmulī, Miṣbāḥ al-hudā, 1380 AH, vol. 8, p. 140; Imām Khomeini, Istiftāʾāt, Daftar-i Nashr-i Islāmī, vol. 1, p. 321.
- ↑ See: ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, Muntahā al-maṭlab, 1412 AH, vol. 9, p. 139; Shahīd al-Awwal, al-Durūs al-sharʿīyya, 1417 AH, vol. 1, p. 273-276; Ardabīlī, Majmaʿ al-fāʾida, 1403 AH, vol. 5, p. 325-326; Ḥakīm, Miṣbāḥ al-minhāj, “Kitāb al-Ṣawm”, 1425 AH, p. 161.
- ↑ See: Āmulī, Miṣbāḥ al-hudā, 1380 AH, vol. 8, p. 140; Ḥakīm, Mustamsak al-ʿurwa al-wuthqā, 1374 Sh, vol. 8, p. 324; Sabziwārī, Muhadhdhab al-aḥkām, 1413 AH, vol. 10, p. 132.
- ↑ Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa, 1409 AH, vol. 10, p. 156-161
- ↑ See: Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 68-69; Ṣadūq, Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh, 1413 AH, vol. 2, p. 134-135.
- ↑ Ṭabāṭabāʾī Yazdī, al-ʿUrawa al-wuthqā, 1419 AH, vol. 3, p. 635-537; Imām Khomeini, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Dār al-ʿilm, vol. 1, p. 298
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Dār al-ʿilm, vol. 1, p. 298
- ↑ Imām Khomeini, Taḥrīr al-wasīla, Dār al-ʿilm, vol. 1, p. 926
- ↑ Bahjat, Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil, 1426 AH, vol. 2, p. 29
- ↑ Ansārīyān, ʿIrfān-i Islāmī, 1386 Sh, vol. 6, p. 272.
- ↑ Ansārīyān, ʿIrfān-i Islāmī, 1386 Sh, vol. 6, p. 272.
- ↑ Ansārīyān, ʿIrfān-i Islāmī, 1386 Sh, vol. 6, p. 272.
- ↑ Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ nahj al-balāgha, 1404 AH, vol. 20, p. 299
- ↑ Kulaynī, al-Kāfī, 1407 AH, vol. 4, p. 87.
- ↑ Tamīmī al-Āmidī, Ghurar al-ḥikam wa durar al-kalim, 1410 AH, p. 423.
References
- ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, al-Ḥasan b. Yūsuf b. Muṭahhar al-. Muntahā al-maṭlab fī taḥqīq al-madhhab. Mashhad, Majmaʿ al-Buḥūth al-Islāmīyya, 1412 AH.
- ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī, al-Ḥasan b. Yūsuf b. Muṭahhar al-. Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ. Qom, Muʾassisat Āl al-Bayt, 1414 AH.
- Āmulī, Muḥammad Taqī al-. Miṣbāḥ al-hudā. Tehran, Nashr-i Muʾallif, 1380 AH.
- Ansārīyān, Ḥusayn. ʿIrfān-i Islāmī. Qom, Dār al-ʿIrfān, 1386 Sh.
- Ardabīlī, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-. Majmaʿ al-fāʾida wa l-burhān. Qom, Muʾassisat al-Nashr al-Islāmī, 1403 AH.
- ʿAyyāshī, Muḥammad b. Masʿūd al-. Tafsīr al-ʿAyyāshī. Ed. Sayyid Hāshim Rasūlī Maḥallātī. Tehran, al-Maktaba al-ʿIlmīyya, 1380 AH.
- Bahjat, Muḥammad Taqī. Jāmiʿ al-masāʾil. Qom, Daftar-i Haḍrat-i Āyat Allāh Bahjat, 1426 AH.
- Farāhīdī, Khalīl b. Aḥmad al-. Kitāb al-ʿAyn. Qom, Hijrat, 1419 AH.
- Ḥakīm, Sayyid Muḥammad Saʿīd al-. Miṣbāḥ al-minhāj, “Kitāb al-Ṣawm”. Qom, Dār al-Hilāl, 1425 AH.
- Ḥakīm, Sayyid Muḥsin al-. Mustamsak al-ʿurwa al-wuthqā. Qom, Muʾassisat Dār al-Tafsīr, 1374 Sh.
- Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-. Hidāyat al-umma ilā aḥkām al-Aʾimma. Mashhad, Bunyād-i Pajhūhishha-yi Islāmī-yi Āstān-i Quds-i Raḍawī, 1412 AH.
- Ḥurr al-ʿĀmilī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-. Wasāʾil al-Shīʿa. Qom, Muʾassist Āl al-Bayt, 1409 AH.
- Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd. Sharḥ nahj al-balāgha. Ed. Muḥammad Abū l-Faḍl Ibrāhīm. Qom, Maktabat Āyat Allāh al-Marʿashī al-Najafī. 1404 AH.
- Ibn Fāris, Aḥmad b. Fāris. Muʿjam maqāyīs al-lugha. Qom, Maktab al-Iʿlām al-Islāmī, 1404 AH.
- Ibn Shuʿba, al-Ḥasan b. ʿAlī. Tuḥaf al-ʿuqūl. Qom, Muʾassisat al-Nashr al-Islāmī, 1363 Sh.
- Imām Khomeini, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh. Istiftāʾāt. Qom, Daftar-i Nashr-i Islāmī, nd.
- Imām Khomeini, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh. Taḥrīr al-wasīla. Qom, Dār al-ʿilm, nd.
- Imām Khomeini, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh. Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil. Ed. Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Banī Hāshimī Khumiynī. Qom, Daftar-i Instishārāt-i Islāmī, 1424 AH.
- Kulaynī, Muḥammad b. Yaʿqūb al-. Al-Kāfī. Tehran, Dār al-Kutub al-Islāmīyya, 1407 AH.
- Majlisī, Muḥammad Bāqir al-. Biḥār al-anwār. Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1403 AH.
- Nahj al-balāgha. ed. Ṣubḥī Ṣāliḥ.
- Najafī, Muḥammad Ḥasan al-. Jawāhir al-kalām fī sharāʾiʿ al-Islām. Beirut, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1404 AH.
- Nūrī, Mīrzā Ḥusayn. Mustadrak al-wasāʾil. Qom, Muʾassisat Āl al-Bayt, 1408 AH.
- Pāyanda, Abū l-Qāsim. Nahj al-faṣāḥa. Qom, Dār al-ʿIlm, 1387 Sh.
- Qummī, ʿAlī b. Ibrāhīm al-. Tafsīr al-Qummi. Ed. Ṭayyib Musawī Jazāʾirī. Qom, Dār al-Kitāb, 1404 AH.
- Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī al-. Mufradāt alfāẓ al-Qurʾān. Beirut-Damascus, Dār al-Qalam-al-Dār al-Shāmīya, 1412 AH.
- Sabziwārī, Sayyid ʿAbd al-Aʿlā al-. Muhadhdhab al-aḥkām. Qom, Muʾassisat al-Minār, 1413 AH.
- Ṣadūq, Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-. Man lā-yaḍuruh al-faqīh. Ed. ʿAlī Akbar Ghaffārī. Qom, Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī, 1413 AH.
- Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn al-. Jumal al-ʿilm wa l-ʿamal. Najaf, Maṭbaʿat al-Ādāb, 1387 AH.
- Shahīd al-Awwal, Muḥammad b. Makkī al-. Al-Durūs al-sharʿīyya fī fiqh al-Imāmīyya. Qom, Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī, 1417 AH.
- Ṭabāṭabāʾī al-Yazdī, al-Sayyid Muḥammad Kāẓim al-. Al-ʿUrawa al-wuthqā. Qom, Daftar-i Intishārāt-i Islāmī, 1419 AH.
- Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn. Al-Mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qurʾān. Qom, Daftar-i Nashr-i Islāmī, 1390 AH.
- Ṭabrisī, al-Ḥasan b. al-Faḍl al-. Makārim al-Akhlāq. Qom, Intishārāt-i Sharīf Raḍī, 1412 AH.
- Ṭabrisī, al-Ḥasan b. al-Faḍl al-. Jawāmiʿ al-jāmiʿ. Ed. Muʾassisa-yi Nashr-i Islāmī. Qom, Jāmiʿa-yi Mudarrisīn, nd.
- Tamīmī al-Āmidī, ʿAbd al-Wāḥid b. Muḥammad al-. Ghurar al-ḥikam wa durar al-kalim. Ed. Sayyid Mahdī Rajaʾī. Qom, Dār al-Kitāb al-Islāmī, 1410 AH.
- Ṭūsī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-. Al-Amālī. Qom, Dār al-Thiqāfa, 1414 AH.
- Yaʿqūbī, Aḥmad b. Isḥāq al-. Tārīkh al-Yaʿqūbī. Beirut, Dar Ṣādir, nd.
